Second Chimurenga - Revision history

Verda.Majo at 07:29, 11 June 2026

2026-06-11T07:29:27Z

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	The '''Second Chimurenga''' refers to the [[national liberation]] [[war]] against [[Settler colonialism\|settler-colonial]] rule that took place in [[Republic of Zimbabwe\|Zimbabwe]] from the mid-1960s until Zimbabwe's formal independence in 1980.<ref name=":0">{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|publisher=Faber and Faber}}</ref> The [[Shona]] word ''chimurenga'' carries various meanings such as uprising, resistance, or [[revolution]].<ref>{{Library citation\|link=Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club\|quote=They rose up in rebellion. It was called the war of chimurenga. Chimurenga is a Shona word. [...] The word "chimurenga" means rebellion, means rising, a resistance, a war of resistance from oppression.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|chapter=Preface\|quote=The word ‘Chimurenga’ has a number of meanings in current usage—revolution, war, struggle or resistance—and one of ZANU’s main slogans during the second Chimurenga war was ‘Pamberi ne Chimurenga’, meaning ‘forward with the struggle or the revolution’.}}</ref>		The '''Second Chimurenga''' refers to the [[national liberation]] [[war]] against [[Settler colonialism\|settler-colonial]] rule that took place in [[Republic of Zimbabwe\|Zimbabwe]] from the mid-1960s until Zimbabwe's formal independence in 1980.<ref name=":0">{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|publisher=Faber and Faber}}</ref> The [[Shona]] word ''chimurenga'' carries various meanings such as uprising, resistance, or [[revolution]].<ref>{{Library citation\|link=Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club\|quote=They rose up in rebellion. It was called the war of chimurenga. Chimurenga is a Shona word. [...] The word "chimurenga" means rebellion, means rising, a resistance, a war of resistance from oppression.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|chapter=Preface\|quote=The word ‘Chimurenga’ has a number of meanings in current usage—revolution, war, struggle or resistance—and one of ZANU’s main slogans during the second Chimurenga war was ‘Pamberi ne Chimurenga’, meaning ‘forward with the struggle or the revolution’.}}</ref>

	Major participants of the war included Zimbabwean national liberation organizations, primarily [[Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front\|Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU) and [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) and their respective military wings, [[ZANLA]] and [[ZIPRA]], against the forces of the settler-colonial "Rhodesian" regime, at that time led by the [[Ian Smith]] administration which had unilaterally declared independence from [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\|Britain]] in 1965.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Herbert Chitepo\|title=Herbert Chitepo at the National Press Club (ca. 1973)\|date=1973\|url=https://en.prolewiki.org/wiki/Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club}}</ref>		Major participants of the war included Zimbabwean national liberation organizations, primarily [[Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front\|Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU) and [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) and their respective military wings, [[ZANLA]] and [[ZIPRA]], against the forces of the settler-colonial "[[Rhodesian]]" regime, at that time led by the [[Ian Smith]] administration which had unilaterally declared independence from [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\|Britain]] in 1965.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Herbert Chitepo\|title=Herbert Chitepo at the National Press Club (ca. 1973)\|date=1973\|url=https://en.prolewiki.org/wiki/Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club}}</ref>

	The Battle of Chinhoyi in 1966 is often regarded as the opening battle of the Second Chimurenga.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Zimbabwe achieved independence in 1980, although the struggle against [[imperialism]], [[neocolonialism]], and against the effects and remnants of settler colonial rule and land dispossession have continued.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Mafa Kwanisai Mafa\|newspaper=Modern Ghana\|title=From Colonial Chains to Neo-Colonial Shackles: Zimbabwe’s Century-Long Struggle for Liberation\|date=2025-04-03\|url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1390616/from-colonial-chains-to-neo-colonial-shackles.html\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260309053022/https://www.modernghana.com/news/1390616/from-colonial-chains-to-neo-colonial-shackles.html\|archive-date=2026-03-09}}</ref>		The Battle of Chinhoyi in 1966 is often regarded as the opening battle of the Second Chimurenga.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Zimbabwe achieved independence in 1980, although the struggle against [[imperialism]], [[neocolonialism]], and against the effects and remnants of settler colonial rule and land dispossession have continued.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Mafa Kwanisai Mafa\|newspaper=Modern Ghana\|title=From Colonial Chains to Neo-Colonial Shackles: Zimbabwe’s Century-Long Struggle for Liberation\|date=2025-04-03\|url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1390616/from-colonial-chains-to-neo-colonial-shackles.html\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260309053022/https://www.modernghana.com/news/1390616/from-colonial-chains-to-neo-colonial-shackles.html\|archive-date=2026-03-09}}</ref>

Verda.Majo: /* Events of the war */

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Events of the war

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	== Events of the war ==		== Events of the war ==
	[[File:ZANLA guerillas prepare for the distribution of literature.png\|alt=ZANLA guerillas standing in a wooded area with stacks of written materials in preparation for the distribution of literature.\|thumb\|ZANLA ~~guerillas~~ prepare for the distribution of literature.]]		[[File:ZANLA guerillas prepare for the distribution of literature.png\|alt=ZANLA guerillas standing in a wooded area with stacks of written materials in preparation for the distribution of literature.\|thumb\|ZANLA guerrillas prepare for the distribution of literature.]]
	On April 28, 1966, in what is known as the battle of Chinhoyi,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Tichaona Zindoga\|newspaper=The Herald\|title=Chinhoyi Battle: The last man standing\|date=2015-04-29\|url=https://www.herald.co.zw/chinhoyi-battle-the-last-man-standing/}}</ref> a squad of seven guerrillas of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU, engaged in a twelve-hour battle with Rhodesian security forces which were backed by helicopter gunships, with the guerrillas eventually losing their lives in the battle. Although previous acts of resistance had occurred, the Chinhoyi battle is considered to be the first act of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe's liberation war.<ref name=":0" />		On April 28, 1966, in what is known as the battle of Chinhoyi,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Tichaona Zindoga\|newspaper=The Herald\|title=Chinhoyi Battle: The last man standing\|date=2015-04-29\|url=https://www.herald.co.zw/chinhoyi-battle-the-last-man-standing/}}</ref> a squad of seven guerrillas of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU, engaged in a twelve-hour battle with Rhodesian security forces which were backed by helicopter gunships, with the guerrillas eventually losing their lives in the battle.<ref name=":0" /> Although previous instances of conflict and acts of resistance, such as protests and sabotage, had occurred before this time<ref name=":4" /><ref>Ranger, T. (1997). [https://doi.org/10.2307/3172030 "Violence Variously Remembered: The Killing of Pieter Oberholzer in July 1964."] ''History in Africa'', ''24'', 273–286. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/3172030</nowiki></ref> the Chinhoyi battle is considered to be the first act of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe's liberation war.<ref name=":0" />

	Another early series of engagements occurred in 1967, known as the Wankie (or Hwange) Campaign, called "Operation Nickel" by the Rhodesian forces, in which an alliance of forces from ZAPU's Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and the [[uMkhonto weSizwe]] (MK) of South Africa's [[African National Congress\|ANC]] were attempting to move undetected from Zambia to South Africa by traveling the outskirts of Hwange Game Reserve, but they were eventually detected by Rhodesian forces and fought in a number of armed clashes.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=MK’s Luthuli Detachment and ZAPU in a joint operation\|date=2011-03-16\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304075845/https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Web citation\|newspaper=About Zimbabwe, Official Government of Zimbabwe Web Portal\|title=History of Zimbabwe\|url=https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412191116/https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-date=2024-04-12}}</ref>		Another early series of engagements occurred in 1967, known as the Wankie (or Hwange) Campaign, called "Operation Nickel" by the Rhodesian forces, in which an alliance of forces from ZAPU's Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and the [[uMkhonto weSizwe]] (MK) of South Africa's [[African National Congress\|ANC]] were attempting to move undetected from Zambia to South Africa by traveling the outskirts of Hwange Game Reserve, but they were eventually detected by Rhodesian forces and fought in a number of armed clashes.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=MK’s Luthuli Detachment and ZAPU in a joint operation\|date=2011-03-16\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304075845/https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Web citation\|newspaper=About Zimbabwe, Official Government of Zimbabwe Web Portal\|title=History of Zimbabwe\|url=https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412191116/https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-date=2024-04-12}}</ref>
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	With many of the guerrillas trained in the early 1960s being killed or captured after attempts at engaging in conventional warfare, ZANU began a reassessment of policy between 1969 and 1972, shifting away from conventional confrontation and toward mobilization of the population to lay the groundwork for protracted struggle. As later explained by Herbert Chitepo, "After politicizing our people it became easier for them to co-operate with us and to identify with our programme."<ref name=":0" /><sup>:12-13</sup>		With many of the guerrillas trained in the early 1960s being killed or captured after attempts at engaging in conventional warfare, ZANU began a reassessment of policy between 1969 and 1972, shifting away from conventional confrontation and toward mobilization of the population to lay the groundwork for protracted struggle. As later explained by Herbert Chitepo, "After politicizing our people it became easier for them to co-operate with us and to identify with our programme."<ref name=":0" /><sup>:12-13</sup>

	On December 4, 1971, two ZANLA guerrillas, Justin Chauke and Amon Zindoga, crossed into northeastern Zimbabwe near Mukumbura, coming over from Mozambique's Tete Province, with the mission to begin laying the groundwork for protracted guerrilla warfare.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> A little over a year later, on December 21, 1972, a squad of nine ZANLA guerrillas attacked a settler-owned tobacco farm called Altena Farm, located in Mount Darwin in northeastern Zimbabwe.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":21">{{Web citation\|author=Ireen Mahamba\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=Battle of the north-eastern frontier…when ZANLA came home\|date=2019-06-27\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/battle-of-the-north-eastern-frontier-when-zanla-came-home/}}</ref> This was the first settler farm to be attacked since 1966. At the time the farm was in the hands of a settler named Marc de Borchgrave who was a leading tobacco farmer, known for his poor labor relations. De Borchgrave and one of his children were lightly wounded in the attack. One white Rhodesian soldier was killed by a landmine, while five others were injured.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> An article in the news outlet The Patriot emphasizes that "A LOT of work had been going on behind the scenes before the opening of the north-eastern frontier of our war of liberation" and states that "by the time the first shots rang out at Altena Farm [...] everything was in place for ZANLA to operate from the north-eastern frontier" and analyzes this attack as "the precursor to other frontiers which would ultimately dismantle Rhodesian forces."<ref name=":21" /> The authors of ''The Struggle for Zimbabwe'' evaluate that "this attack marked the change from the sporadic, and the militarily ineffectual, actions of the Sixties, to protracted armed struggle."<ref name=":0" /><sup>xvii</sup>		On December 4, 1971, two ZANLA guerrillas, Justin Chauke and Amon Zindoga, crossed into northeastern Zimbabwe near Mukumbura, coming over from Mozambique's Tete Province, with the mission to begin laying the groundwork for protracted guerrilla warfare.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> A little over a year later, on December 21, 1972, a squad of nine ZANLA guerrillas attacked a settler-owned tobacco farm called Altena Farm, located in Mount Darwin in northeastern Zimbabwe.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":21">{{Web citation\|author=Ireen Mahamba\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=Battle of the north-eastern frontier…when ZANLA came home\|date=2019-06-27\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/battle-of-the-north-eastern-frontier-when-zanla-came-home/}}</ref> This was the first settler farm to be attacked since 1966. At the time the farm was in the hands of a settler named Marc de Borchgrave who was a leading [[tobacco]] farmer, known for his poor labor relations. De Borchgrave and one of his children were lightly wounded in the attack. One white Rhodesian soldier was killed by a landmine, while five others were injured.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> An article in the news outlet The Patriot emphasizes that "A LOT of work had been going on behind the scenes before the opening of the north-eastern frontier of our war of liberation" and states that "by the time the first shots rang out at Altena Farm [...] everything was in place for ZANLA to operate from the north-eastern frontier" and analyzes this attack as "the precursor to other frontiers which would ultimately dismantle Rhodesian forces."<ref name=":21" /> The authors of ''The Struggle for Zimbabwe'' evaluate that "this attack marked the change from the sporadic, and the militarily ineffectual, actions of the Sixties, to protracted armed struggle."<ref name=":0" /><sup>xvii</sup>

	== References ==		== References ==

Verda.Majo: /* Events of the war */ added image, moved an image to different section

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← Older revision		Revision as of 10:02, 18 March 2026
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	===== Independent African countries =====		===== Independent African countries =====
	[[File:Map detail of southern Africa with independence dates.png\|alt=A map detail showing southern African countries with their formal dates of independence. Includes Tanzania (1961), Malawi (1964), Zambia (1964), Botswana (1966), Lesotho (1966), Swaziland (1968), Angola (1975), Mozambique (1975), Zimbabwe (1980), Namibia (1990). South Africa is labelled saying "Union in 1910 and de facto independence in 1931."\|thumb\|~~291x291px~~\|A map detail showing countries in southern Africa with their formal dates of independence.]]		[[File:Map detail of southern Africa with independence dates.png\|alt=A map detail showing southern African countries with their formal dates of independence. Includes Tanzania (1961), Malawi (1964), Zambia (1964), Botswana (1966), Lesotho (1966), Swaziland (1968), Angola (1975), Mozambique (1975), Zimbabwe (1980), Namibia (1990). South Africa is labelled saying "Union in 1910 and de facto independence in 1931."\|thumb\|294x294px\|A map detail showing countries in southern Africa with their formal dates of independence.]]
			[[File:Learning to use guns in ZANLA training camp in Mozambique.png\|alt=Two photos of people learning to use guns at a ZANLA training camp. Top photo: People kneel while handling guns as a trainer observes. Bottom photo: People seated in rows among trees handling guns.\|thumb\|People learning to use guns at a ZANLA military training camp in Mozambique.\|432x432px]]
	{{Main article\|Frontline States}}By the mid-1960s, Zimbabwe's neighboring countries [[Republic of Zambia\|Zambia]] and [[Republic of Botswana\|Botswana]] had gained formal independence from European colonialism. Later, in 1975, Mozambique and Angola gained independence. Though not an immediate neighbor of Zimbabwe, Tanzania also had involvement in various international negotiation proceedings and provided various forms of support to national liberation movements in Africa, including Zimbabwe's.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Chambi Chachage, Annar Cassam (Eds.)\|year=2010\|title=Africa's Liberation\|title-url=https://library.memoryoftheworld.org/#/book/18959308-a6be-48b2-bfbc-3d07deb88357\|chapter=Mwalimu Julius Nyerere: an intellectual in power (Haroub Othman)\|page=38-9\|quote=Frelimo was founded in Tanzania; the ANC, after its banning in South Africa, opened its first external mission in Tanzania; and MOLINACO, MPLA, ZANU, ZAPU, PAC and many others had Tanzania's full support. In the UN Decolonisation Committee (known as the Committee of 24), Tanzania's then permanent representative to the UN, Salim Ahmed Salim, held the chairmanship for several years. [...] Tanzania's support to the liberation movements was not only manifested in the political and diplomatic arenas but also in the material and military fields.\|publisher=Pambazuka Press}}</ref> The group of anti-apartheid independent African countries known as the [[Frontline States]] included Zambia, Tanzania, Botswana, Mozambique, and Angola—with Zimbabwe joining them after 1980.<ref name=":27">{{Citation\|author=Carol B. Thompson\|year=1985\|title=Challenge to Imperialism: The Frontline States in the Liberation of Zimbabwe}}</ref>		{{Main article\|Frontline States}}By the mid-1960s, Zimbabwe's neighboring countries [[Republic of Zambia\|Zambia]] and [[Republic of Botswana\|Botswana]] had gained formal independence from European colonialism. Later, in 1975, Mozambique and Angola gained independence. Though not an immediate neighbor of Zimbabwe, Tanzania also had involvement in various international negotiation proceedings and provided various forms of support to national liberation movements in Africa, including Zimbabwe's.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Chambi Chachage, Annar Cassam (Eds.)\|year=2010\|title=Africa's Liberation\|title-url=https://library.memoryoftheworld.org/#/book/18959308-a6be-48b2-bfbc-3d07deb88357\|chapter=Mwalimu Julius Nyerere: an intellectual in power (Haroub Othman)\|page=38-9\|quote=Frelimo was founded in Tanzania; the ANC, after its banning in South Africa, opened its first external mission in Tanzania; and MOLINACO, MPLA, ZANU, ZAPU, PAC and many others had Tanzania's full support. In the UN Decolonisation Committee (known as the Committee of 24), Tanzania's then permanent representative to the UN, Salim Ahmed Salim, held the chairmanship for several years. [...] Tanzania's support to the liberation movements was not only manifested in the political and diplomatic arenas but also in the material and military fields.\|publisher=Pambazuka Press}}</ref> The group of anti-apartheid independent African countries known as the [[Frontline States]] included Zambia, Tanzania, Botswana, Mozambique, and Angola—with Zimbabwe joining them after 1980.<ref name=":27">{{Citation\|author=Carol B. Thompson\|year=1985\|title=Challenge to Imperialism: The Frontline States in the Liberation of Zimbabwe}}</ref>

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	Prior to Mozambique's formal independence, FRELIMO had opened a passage into Rhodesia through Tete province as early as 1970.<ref name=":27" /><sup>:12</sup> An initial group of four ZANLA guerrillas were sent to join FRELIMO in Tete in July 1970.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:21</sup> ZANLA began operating from these liberated areas with assistance from FRELIMO in 1971.<ref name=":27" /><sup>:12</sup>		Prior to Mozambique's formal independence, FRELIMO had opened a passage into Rhodesia through Tete province as early as 1970.<ref name=":27" /><sup>:12</sup> An initial group of four ZANLA guerrillas were sent to join FRELIMO in Tete in July 1970.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:21</sup> ZANLA began operating from these liberated areas with assistance from FRELIMO in 1971.<ref name=":27" /><sup>:12</sup>

	Speaking on Tanzania's involvement, former military instructor Humphrey Makuyana recalled in an interview that early on, ZANLA's training efforts were "fragmented, small-scale and constrained by limited infrastructure"<ref name=":28">{{Web citation\|newspaper=Herald Online\|title=Nachingwea became strategic engine of Zanla\|date=2026-03-08\|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260308145954/https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/?__cf_chl_rt_tk=I17QAit7dbS.KuSyAOKp9llIDx1CQfI3G6M8eSeCETY-1772981994-1.0.1.1-zB6gN6jhM2g7RIdg4SoYqMUyBxDXwr0XA0BixFSZ.R0\|archive-date=2026-03-08}}</ref> but that later on, the opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania, which ZANLA began using in 1976,<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=ZBC News\|title=Nachingwea: the historic camp that trained 15 000 ZANLA guerrillas\|date=2025-08-27\|url=https://www.zbcnews.co.zw/nachingwea-the-historic-camp-that-trained-15-000-zanla-guerrillas/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=nachingwea-the-historic-camp-that-trained-15-000-zanla-guerrillas\|quote=Since its adoption as a training camp by ZANLA forces in 1976, Nachingwea produced more than 15 000 guerrillas comprising Songambele, Fanya Haraka and Maliza groups.}}</ref> was a decisive turning point in the struggle:<blockquote>The opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania to ZANLA marked a decisive turning point in the struggle. More than a mere training facility, Nachingwea became the strategic engine of ZANLA, producing the highest volume of recruits and some of the most proficient fighters of the war. [...] Crucially, the effectiveness of these forces was complemented by ZIPRA cadres, who were trained in Angola and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)\|Soviet Union]], and deployed primarily to the north-western regions of Rhodesia. Together, these parallel training pipelines transformed the war into a multi-front, multi-doctrinal struggle that the Rhodesian regime could no longer contain.<ref name=":28" /></blockquote>Makuyana expressed that this facility enabled ZANLA to train at least five thousand recruits per intake in a continuous and organized manner, ensuring a steady flow of fighters into operational zones. The late-1970s surge in ZANLA's presence across rural and semi-urban areas was attributed to this increased capacity. Makuyana also commented on the political education at this facility, which he said emphasized nationalism, Pan-Africanism and socialist-oriented ideology.<ref name=":28" />		Speaking on Tanzania's involvement, former military instructor Humphrey Makuyana recalled in an interview that early on, ZANLA's training efforts were "fragmented, small-scale and constrained by limited infrastructure"<ref name=":28">{{Web citation\|newspaper=Herald Online\|title=Nachingwea became strategic engine of Zanla\|date=2026-03-08\|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260308145954/https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/?__cf_chl_rt_tk=I17QAit7dbS.KuSyAOKp9llIDx1CQfI3G6M8eSeCETY-1772981994-1.0.1.1-zB6gN6jhM2g7RIdg4SoYqMUyBxDXwr0XA0BixFSZ.R0\|archive-date=2026-03-08}}</ref> but that later on, the opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania, which ZANLA began using in 1976,<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=ZBC News\|title=Nachingwea: the historic camp that trained 15 000 ZANLA guerrillas\|date=2025-08-27\|url=https://www.zbcnews.co.zw/nachingwea-the-historic-camp-that-trained-15-000-zanla-guerrillas/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=nachingwea-the-historic-camp-that-trained-15-000-zanla-guerrillas\|quote=Since its adoption as a training camp by ZANLA forces in 1976, Nachingwea produced more than 15 000 guerrillas comprising Songambele, Fanya Haraka and Maliza groups.}}</ref> was a decisive turning point in the struggle:<blockquote>The opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania to ZANLA marked a decisive turning point in the struggle. More than a mere training facility, Nachingwea became the strategic engine of ZANLA, producing the highest volume of recruits and some of the most proficient fighters of the war. [...] Crucially, the effectiveness of these forces was complemented by ZIPRA cadres, who were trained in Angola and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)\|Soviet Union]], and deployed primarily to the north-western regions of Rhodesia. Together, these parallel training pipelines transformed the war into a multi-front, multi-doctrinal struggle that the Rhodesian regime could no longer contain.<ref name=":28" /></blockquote>Makuyana expressed that this facility enabled ZANLA to train at least five thousand recruits per intake in a continuous and organized manner, ensuring a steady flow of fighters into operational zones. The late-1970s surge in ZANLA's presence across rural and semi-urban areas was attributed to this increased capacity. Makuyana also commented on the political education at this facility, which he said emphasized nationalism, [[Pan-Africanism]] and socialist-oriented ideology.<ref name=":28" />

	===== Socialist countries =====		===== Socialist countries =====
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	== Events of the war ==		== Events of the war ==
	~~=== Beginning ===~~		[[File:ZANLA guerillas prepare for the distribution of literature.png\|alt=ZANLA guerillas standing in a wooded area with stacks of written materials in preparation for the distribution of literature.\|thumb\|ZANLA guerillas prepare for the distribution of literature.]]
	[[File:~~Learning to use guns in~~ ZANLA ~~training camp in Mozambique~~.png\|alt=~~Two photos of people learning to use guns at a~~ ZANLA ~~training camp. Top photo: People kneel while handling guns as~~ a ~~trainer observes. Bottom photo: People seated~~ in ~~rows among trees handling guns~~.\|thumb\|~~People learning to use guns at a~~ ZANLA ~~military training camp in Mozambique~~.]]
	On April 28, 1966, in what is known as the battle of Chinhoyi,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Tichaona Zindoga\|newspaper=The Herald\|title=Chinhoyi Battle: The last man standing\|date=2015-04-29\|url=https://www.herald.co.zw/chinhoyi-battle-the-last-man-standing/}}</ref> a squad of seven guerrillas of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU, engaged in a twelve-hour battle with Rhodesian security forces which were backed by helicopter gunships, with the guerrillas eventually losing their lives in the battle. Although previous acts of resistance had occurred, the Chinhoyi battle is considered to be the first act of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe's liberation war.<ref name=":0" />		On April 28, 1966, in what is known as the battle of Chinhoyi,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Tichaona Zindoga\|newspaper=The Herald\|title=Chinhoyi Battle: The last man standing\|date=2015-04-29\|url=https://www.herald.co.zw/chinhoyi-battle-the-last-man-standing/}}</ref> a squad of seven guerrillas of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU, engaged in a twelve-hour battle with Rhodesian security forces which were backed by helicopter gunships, with the guerrillas eventually losing their lives in the battle. Although previous acts of resistance had occurred, the Chinhoyi battle is considered to be the first act of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe's liberation war.<ref name=":0" />

Verda.Majo: /* Pre-war colonial situation */ added more about Zhii

2026-03-18T06:43:42Z

Pre-war colonial situation: added more about Zhii

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:43, 18 March 2026
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	1957 saw the formation of the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress (SRANC, shortened to ANC) which engaged in demonstrations challenging unpopular government policies. By 1959, the colonial regime declared a state of emergency and banned the ANC under the newly created Unlawful Organisations Act, and 500 political leaders were arrested. Zimbabweans formed increasingly militant organizations which were successively banned by the colonial regime, including the National Democratic Party (NDP) in 1960 under [[Joshua Nkomo]].<ref name=":2" />		1957 saw the formation of the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress (SRANC, shortened to ANC) which engaged in demonstrations challenging unpopular government policies. By 1959, the colonial regime declared a state of emergency and banned the ANC under the newly created Unlawful Organisations Act, and 500 political leaders were arrested. Zimbabweans formed increasingly militant organizations which were successively banned by the colonial regime, including the National Democratic Party (NDP) in 1960 under [[Joshua Nkomo]].<ref name=":2" />

	The early 1960s saw the Zhii era, consisting of ~~spontaneous~~ uprisings which involved ~~burning~~ of property.<ref name=":4">{{Web citation\|author=Clark Mpofu\|newspaper=Bulawayo 24 News\|title=Reminescing the Zhii era\|date=2016-02-07\|url=https://bulawayo24.com/index-id-opinion-sc-columnist-byo-82159.html}}</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/720631 "The Social and Communal Background to 'Zhii': The African Riots in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia in 1960."] African Affairs Vol. 69, No. 276 (Jul., 1970), pp. 250-266 (17 pages) Published By: Oxford University Press.</ref> NDP was banned in 1961 and the Zimbabwean African People's Union (ZAPU) was then formed, also under Nkomo. Meanwhile, white settlers' anxieties over black African resistance and majority rule were mounting and they formed the Rhodesian Front (RF) party in 1962, winning that year's elections.<ref name=":2" /> Some activists began using explosives for [[sabotage]], such as to destroy rail tracks in order to back up their demands for one man one vote. However, over time, it appeared to some that the use of sabotage was not having the desired effect and that an escalation to war would be required, and some cadres began traveling to [[Socialism\|socialist]] countries in pursuit of training.<ref name=":4" /> In 1963 a split in ZAPU occurred leading to the formation of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) under [[Ndabaningi Sithole]].<ref name=":2" /> In 1964 there was a wave of sabotage in Rhodesia's eastern districts.<ref>Ranger, T. (1997). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3172030 "Violence Variously Remembered: The Killing of Pieter Oberholzer in July 1964."] ''History in Africa'', ''24'', 273–286.</ref> In 1965, RF co-founder Ian Smith announced the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of "Rhodesia" in which he declared the settler colony under white minority rule to be independent from Britain.<ref name=":2" />		The early 1960s saw the Zhii era, consisting of uprisings which involved damage of property.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Julie Frederikse\|year=1982\|title=None but ourselves : masses vs. media in the making of Zimbabwe\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/nonebutourselves0000fred/\|chapter=Before the War\|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/nonebutourselves0000fred/page/37/mode/1up\|section=Zhii\|page=37\|quote=Francis Nehwati, trade unionist: The word Zhii has no precise equivalent in English. Its nearest meaning in English is ‘devastating action’, ‘destroy completely’, ‘reduce to rubble’. It takes its origin from the sound caused by the fall of a huge rock. Any object so crushed is beyond retrieval. Ngizakubulala zhii (Ndebele) or Ndicakuwuraya zhii (Shona) means: ‘I will kill you and reduce your remains to powder.’ Zhii is a very drastic act, an act which is reserved for an arch enemy. It is never invoked in minor situations. The shouting and chanting of Zhii is restricted to situations of war which demand the maximum efforts of every man. In a war song Zhii raises the morale of the combatants. It fills them with vigour to fight and to inflict the deadliest blow. This was the feeling during the riots in 1960, hence these riots are known and referred to as Zhii.}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Web citation\|author=Clark Mpofu\|newspaper=Bulawayo 24 News\|title=Reminescing the Zhii era\|date=2016-02-07\|url=https://bulawayo24.com/index-id-opinion-sc-columnist-byo-82159.html}}</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/720631 "The Social and Communal Background to 'Zhii': The African Riots in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia in 1960."] African Affairs Vol. 69, No. 276 (Jul., 1970), pp. 250-266 (17 pages) Published By: Oxford University Press.</ref> Unrest initially broke out after three NDP leaders were detained, which drew a response of peaceful protest. Colonial authorities then banned NDP rallies and police later violently dispersed crowds of thousands of protesters. In response, workers walked out of work and started destroying buildings which represented the colonial state.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Julie Fredrikse\|year=1982\|title=None but ourselves : masses vs. media in the making of Zimbabwe\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/nonebutourselves0000fred/\|chapter=Before the War\|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/nonebutourselves0000fred/page/37/mode/1up\|section=Zhii\|page=37-38}}</ref> NDP was banned in 1961 and the Zimbabwean African People's Union (ZAPU) was then formed, also under Nkomo. Meanwhile, white settlers' anxieties over black African resistance and majority rule were mounting and they formed the Rhodesian Front (RF) party in 1962, winning that year's elections.<ref name=":2" />

			Some activists began using explosives for [[sabotage]], such as to destroy rail tracks in order to back up their demands for one man one vote. However, over time, it appeared to some that the use of sabotage was not having the desired effect and that an escalation to war would be required, and some cadres began traveling to [[Socialism\|socialist]] countries in pursuit of training.<ref name=":4" /> In 1963 a split in ZAPU occurred leading to the formation of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) under [[Ndabaningi Sithole]].<ref name=":2" /> In 1964 there was a wave of sabotage in Rhodesia's eastern districts.<ref>Ranger, T. (1997). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3172030 "Violence Variously Remembered: The Killing of Pieter Oberholzer in July 1964."] ''History in Africa'', ''24'', 273–286.</ref> In 1965, RF co-founder Ian Smith announced the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of "Rhodesia" in which he declared the settler colony under white minority rule to be independent from Britain.<ref name=":2" />

	=== International context ===		=== International context ===

Verda.Majo: expansions to the "Background" section and to "Events of the war"

2026-03-17T05:57:22Z

expansions to the "Background" section and to "Events of the war"

← Older revision		Revision as of 05:57, 17 March 2026
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	British colonialism in the region of what is now Zimbabwe was spearheaded by the invading Pioneer Column of the [[British South Africa Company]] (BSAC), founded by [[Cecil Rhodes]]. The colonization process dispossessed the indigenous peoples of their lands and expelled them to Native Reserves, later called Tribal Trust Lands.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">[https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/module-thirty-activity-three/ "The Land Question."] Module Thirty, Activity Three. Exploring Africa, Michigan State University African Studies Center. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240413182804/https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/module-thirty-activity-three/ Archived] 2024-04-13.</ref> Over the decades, indigenous Zimbabweans continued having their land and property seized and their rights and dignity trampled by settlers and the settler-colonial regime, while being forced to live in the arid and overcrowded Tribal Trust Lands and carry passes to enter designated "white" areas. Meanwhile, settlers profited from stolen land and cattle acquired through various government policies which routinely transferred African land and property to white settlers.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Michelina Andreucci\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=The lingering legacy of colonialism: Part One…the situpa as an oppressive, racist instrument\|date=2017-06-30\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/the-lingering-legacy-of-colonialism-part-onethe-situpa-as-an-oppressive-racist-instrument/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250222032935/https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/the-lingering-legacy-of-colonialism-part-onethe-situpa-as-an-oppressive-racist-instrument/\|archive-date=2025-02-22}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=A. S. Mlambo\|year=2014\|title=A history of Zimbabwe\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofzimbabw0000mlam}}</ref> Over time, indigenous Zimbabweans engaged in mounting forms of resistance against this oppressive situation, taking a variety of forms including engaging in boycotts, strikes, forming trade unions, associations, and African churches.<ref name=":2" />		British colonialism in the region of what is now Zimbabwe was spearheaded by the invading Pioneer Column of the [[British South Africa Company]] (BSAC), founded by [[Cecil Rhodes]]. The colonization process dispossessed the indigenous peoples of their lands and expelled them to Native Reserves, later called Tribal Trust Lands.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">[https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/module-thirty-activity-three/ "The Land Question."] Module Thirty, Activity Three. Exploring Africa, Michigan State University African Studies Center. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240413182804/https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/module-thirty-activity-three/ Archived] 2024-04-13.</ref> Over the decades, indigenous Zimbabweans continued having their land and property seized and their rights and dignity trampled by settlers and the settler-colonial regime, while being forced to live in the arid and overcrowded Tribal Trust Lands and carry passes to enter designated "white" areas. Meanwhile, settlers profited from stolen land and cattle acquired through various government policies which routinely transferred African land and property to white settlers.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Michelina Andreucci\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=The lingering legacy of colonialism: Part One…the situpa as an oppressive, racist instrument\|date=2017-06-30\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/the-lingering-legacy-of-colonialism-part-onethe-situpa-as-an-oppressive-racist-instrument/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250222032935/https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/the-lingering-legacy-of-colonialism-part-onethe-situpa-as-an-oppressive-racist-instrument/\|archive-date=2025-02-22}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=A. S. Mlambo\|year=2014\|title=A history of Zimbabwe\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofzimbabw0000mlam}}</ref> Over time, indigenous Zimbabweans engaged in mounting forms of resistance against this oppressive situation, taking a variety of forms including engaging in boycotts, strikes, forming trade unions, associations, and African churches.<ref name=":2" />

	1957 saw the formation of the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress (SRANC, shortened to ANC) which engaged in demonstrations challenging unpopular government policies. By 1959, the colonial regime declared a state of emergency and banned the ANC under the newly created Unlawful Organisations Act, and 500 political leaders were arrested. Zimbabweans formed increasingly militant organizations which were successively banned by the colonial regime, including the National Democratic Party (NDP) in 1960 under [[Joshua Nkomo]]. NDP was banned in 1961 and the Zimbabwean African People's Union (ZAPU) was then formed, also under Nkomo. Meanwhile, white settlers' anxieties over black African resistance were mounting and they formed the Rhodesian Front (RF) party in 1962, winning that year's elections. In 1963 a split in ZAPU occurred leading to the formation of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) under [[Ndabaningi Sithole]]. In 1965, RF co-founder Ian Smith announced the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of "Rhodesia" in which he declared the settler colony under white minority rule to be independent from Britain.<ref name=":2" />		1957 saw the formation of the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress (SRANC, shortened to ANC) which engaged in demonstrations challenging unpopular government policies. By 1959, the colonial regime declared a state of emergency and banned the ANC under the newly created Unlawful Organisations Act, and 500 political leaders were arrested. Zimbabweans formed increasingly militant organizations which were successively banned by the colonial regime, including the National Democratic Party (NDP) in 1960 under [[Joshua Nkomo]].<ref name=":2" />

			The early 1960s saw the Zhii era, consisting of spontaneous uprisings which involved burning of property.<ref name=":4">{{Web citation\|author=Clark Mpofu\|newspaper=Bulawayo 24 News\|title=Reminescing the Zhii era\|date=2016-02-07\|url=https://bulawayo24.com/index-id-opinion-sc-columnist-byo-82159.html}}</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/720631 "The Social and Communal Background to 'Zhii': The African Riots in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia in 1960."] African Affairs Vol. 69, No. 276 (Jul., 1970), pp. 250-266 (17 pages) Published By: Oxford University Press.</ref> NDP was banned in 1961 and the Zimbabwean African People's Union (ZAPU) was then formed, also under Nkomo. Meanwhile, white settlers' anxieties over black African resistance and majority rule were mounting and they formed the Rhodesian Front (RF) party in 1962, winning that year's elections.<ref name=":2" /> Some activists began using explosives for [[sabotage]], such as to destroy rail tracks in order to back up their demands for one man one vote. However, over time, it appeared to some that the use of sabotage was not having the desired effect and that an escalation to war would be required, and some cadres began traveling to [[Socialism\|socialist]] countries in pursuit of training.<ref name=":4" /> In 1963 a split in ZAPU occurred leading to the formation of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) under [[Ndabaningi Sithole]].<ref name=":2" /> In 1964 there was a wave of sabotage in Rhodesia's eastern districts.<ref>Ranger, T. (1997). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3172030 "Violence Variously Remembered: The Killing of Pieter Oberholzer in July 1964."] ''History in Africa'', ''24'', 273–286.</ref> In 1965, RF co-founder Ian Smith announced the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of "Rhodesia" in which he declared the settler colony under white minority rule to be independent from Britain.<ref name=":2" />

	=== International context ===		=== International context ===
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	The guerrilla forces of Zimbabwe's national liberation struggle had training camps and bases in various countries of the region, initially in Tanzania, and later also in Mozambique, Zambia, and Angola. The Frontline States also provided a diplomatic base for the movement.<ref name=":27" /> While Zimbabwe's national liberation movement remained for the most part split between ZANU and ZAPU (and their separate armed wings, ZANLA and ZIPRA), the Frontline States made various attempts at fostering a greater level of unity among the movement, though the differing national liberation organizations at various times expressed major dissatisfaction with the arrangements favored by the Frontline States.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Robert Mugabe\|year=1983\|title=Our War of Liberation\|title-url=Library:Our_War_of_Liberation\|chapter=Introduction by N M Shamuyarira and C M B Utete\|quote=In Lusaka, the Frontline leaders wanted to unite ZANU, ZAPU, ANC, and FROLIZI. Their original plan was that Nkomo would be President of the unified movement, with Muzorewa as his Deputy and Sithole as Secretary-General. It fell through because the ZANU delegation did not accept the dissolution of the party and Nkomo's leadership. They wanted the war to continue. However, under heavy pressure an criticism from the leaders of the Frontline states, Sithole, Nkomo, Muzorewa and Chikerema signed the Zimbabwe Declaration of Unity of 8 December 1974. [...] ZIPA, as has been said, was set up with the blessing of the Frontline leaders — in an effort to bypass established national leadership in favour of the military commanders. From the start, it was crippled by internal contradictions. It was unable to establish itself as a political organisation. ZANLA and ZIPRA never merged within it. The Frontline leaders were ultimately forced to begin looking for a viable political formation to fill the void at meetings in Maputo and Dar es Salaam.}}</ref>		The guerrilla forces of Zimbabwe's national liberation struggle had training camps and bases in various countries of the region, initially in Tanzania, and later also in Mozambique, Zambia, and Angola. The Frontline States also provided a diplomatic base for the movement.<ref name=":27" /> While Zimbabwe's national liberation movement remained for the most part split between ZANU and ZAPU (and their separate armed wings, ZANLA and ZIPRA), the Frontline States made various attempts at fostering a greater level of unity among the movement, though the differing national liberation organizations at various times expressed major dissatisfaction with the arrangements favored by the Frontline States.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Robert Mugabe\|year=1983\|title=Our War of Liberation\|title-url=Library:Our_War_of_Liberation\|chapter=Introduction by N M Shamuyarira and C M B Utete\|quote=In Lusaka, the Frontline leaders wanted to unite ZANU, ZAPU, ANC, and FROLIZI. Their original plan was that Nkomo would be President of the unified movement, with Muzorewa as his Deputy and Sithole as Secretary-General. It fell through because the ZANU delegation did not accept the dissolution of the party and Nkomo's leadership. They wanted the war to continue. However, under heavy pressure an criticism from the leaders of the Frontline states, Sithole, Nkomo, Muzorewa and Chikerema signed the Zimbabwe Declaration of Unity of 8 December 1974. [...] ZIPA, as has been said, was set up with the blessing of the Frontline leaders — in an effort to bypass established national leadership in favour of the military commanders. From the start, it was crippled by internal contradictions. It was unable to establish itself as a political organisation. ZANLA and ZIPRA never merged within it. The Frontline leaders were ultimately forced to begin looking for a viable political formation to fill the void at meetings in Maputo and Dar es Salaam.}}</ref>

	Prior to Mozambique's formal independence, FRELIMO had opened a passage into Rhodesia through Tete province as early as 1970. ZANLA began operating from these liberated areas with assistance from FRELIMO in 1971.<ref name=":27" /><sup>:12</sup>		Itumbi training camp in southern Tanzania opened in 1965, located on an abandoned farm. In 1969, a team of eight instructors from China arrived at the camp to teach [[reconnaissance]] and sabotage and training on weapons such as [[Mortar (weapon)\|mortars]], [[Bazooka\|bazookas]], and [[Anti-aircraft warfare\|anti-aircraft]] guns. Recruits were trained for a period of sixteen months, with the first six months consisting of basic training and the remainder in specialized training including advanced sabotage.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:24</sup>

			Prior to Mozambique's formal independence, FRELIMO had opened a passage into Rhodesia through Tete province as early as 1970.<ref name=":27" /><sup>:12</sup> An initial group of four ZANLA guerrillas were sent to join FRELIMO in Tete in July 1970.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:21</sup> ZANLA began operating from these liberated areas with assistance from FRELIMO in 1971.<ref name=":27" /><sup>:12</sup>

	Speaking on Tanzania's involvement, former military instructor Humphrey Makuyana recalled in an interview that early on, ZANLA's training efforts were "fragmented, small-scale and constrained by limited infrastructure"<ref name=":28">{{Web citation\|newspaper=Herald Online\|title=Nachingwea became strategic engine of Zanla\|date=2026-03-08\|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260308145954/https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/?__cf_chl_rt_tk=I17QAit7dbS.KuSyAOKp9llIDx1CQfI3G6M8eSeCETY-1772981994-1.0.1.1-zB6gN6jhM2g7RIdg4SoYqMUyBxDXwr0XA0BixFSZ.R0\|archive-date=2026-03-08}}</ref> but that later on, the opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania, which ZANLA began using in 1976,<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=ZBC News\|title=Nachingwea: the historic camp that trained 15 000 ZANLA guerrillas\|date=2025-08-27\|url=https://www.zbcnews.co.zw/nachingwea-the-historic-camp-that-trained-15-000-zanla-guerrillas/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=nachingwea-the-historic-camp-that-trained-15-000-zanla-guerrillas\|quote=Since its adoption as a training camp by ZANLA forces in 1976, Nachingwea produced more than 15 000 guerrillas comprising Songambele, Fanya Haraka and Maliza groups.}}</ref> was a decisive turning point in the struggle:<blockquote>The opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania to ZANLA marked a decisive turning point in the struggle. More than a mere training facility, Nachingwea became the strategic engine of ZANLA, producing the highest volume of recruits and some of the most proficient fighters of the war. [...] Crucially, the effectiveness of these forces was complemented by ZIPRA cadres, who were trained in Angola and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)\|Soviet Union]], and deployed primarily to the north-western regions of Rhodesia. Together, these parallel training pipelines transformed the war into a multi-front, multi-doctrinal struggle that the Rhodesian regime could no longer contain.<ref name=":28" /></blockquote>Makuyana expressed that this facility enabled ZANLA to train at least five thousand recruits per intake in a continuous and organized manner, ensuring a steady flow of fighters into operational zones. The late-1970s surge in ZANLA's presence across rural and semi-urban areas was attributed to this increased capacity. Makuyana also commented on the political education at this facility, which he said emphasized nationalism, Pan-Africanism and socialist-oriented ideology.<ref name=":28" />		Speaking on Tanzania's involvement, former military instructor Humphrey Makuyana recalled in an interview that early on, ZANLA's training efforts were "fragmented, small-scale and constrained by limited infrastructure"<ref name=":28">{{Web citation\|newspaper=Herald Online\|title=Nachingwea became strategic engine of Zanla\|date=2026-03-08\|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260308145954/https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/?__cf_chl_rt_tk=I17QAit7dbS.KuSyAOKp9llIDx1CQfI3G6M8eSeCETY-1772981994-1.0.1.1-zB6gN6jhM2g7RIdg4SoYqMUyBxDXwr0XA0BixFSZ.R0\|archive-date=2026-03-08}}</ref> but that later on, the opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania, which ZANLA began using in 1976,<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=ZBC News\|title=Nachingwea: the historic camp that trained 15 000 ZANLA guerrillas\|date=2025-08-27\|url=https://www.zbcnews.co.zw/nachingwea-the-historic-camp-that-trained-15-000-zanla-guerrillas/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=nachingwea-the-historic-camp-that-trained-15-000-zanla-guerrillas\|quote=Since its adoption as a training camp by ZANLA forces in 1976, Nachingwea produced more than 15 000 guerrillas comprising Songambele, Fanya Haraka and Maliza groups.}}</ref> was a decisive turning point in the struggle:<blockquote>The opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania to ZANLA marked a decisive turning point in the struggle. More than a mere training facility, Nachingwea became the strategic engine of ZANLA, producing the highest volume of recruits and some of the most proficient fighters of the war. [...] Crucially, the effectiveness of these forces was complemented by ZIPRA cadres, who were trained in Angola and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)\|Soviet Union]], and deployed primarily to the north-western regions of Rhodesia. Together, these parallel training pipelines transformed the war into a multi-front, multi-doctrinal struggle that the Rhodesian regime could no longer contain.<ref name=":28" /></blockquote>Makuyana expressed that this facility enabled ZANLA to train at least five thousand recruits per intake in a continuous and organized manner, ensuring a steady flow of fighters into operational zones. The late-1970s surge in ZANLA's presence across rural and semi-urban areas was attributed to this increased capacity. Makuyana also commented on the political education at this facility, which he said emphasized nationalism, Pan-Africanism and socialist-oriented ideology.<ref name=":28" />
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	Another early series of engagements occurred in 1967, known as the Wankie (or Hwange) Campaign, called "Operation Nickel" by the Rhodesian forces, in which an alliance of forces from ZAPU's Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and the [[uMkhonto weSizwe]] (MK) of South Africa's [[African National Congress\|ANC]] were attempting to move undetected from Zambia to South Africa by traveling the outskirts of Hwange Game Reserve, but they were eventually detected by Rhodesian forces and fought in a number of armed clashes.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=MK’s Luthuli Detachment and ZAPU in a joint operation\|date=2011-03-16\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304075845/https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Web citation\|newspaper=About Zimbabwe, Official Government of Zimbabwe Web Portal\|title=History of Zimbabwe\|url=https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412191116/https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-date=2024-04-12}}</ref>		Another early series of engagements occurred in 1967, known as the Wankie (or Hwange) Campaign, called "Operation Nickel" by the Rhodesian forces, in which an alliance of forces from ZAPU's Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and the [[uMkhonto weSizwe]] (MK) of South Africa's [[African National Congress\|ANC]] were attempting to move undetected from Zambia to South Africa by traveling the outskirts of Hwange Game Reserve, but they were eventually detected by Rhodesian forces and fought in a number of armed clashes.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=MK’s Luthuli Detachment and ZAPU in a joint operation\|date=2011-03-16\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304075845/https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Web citation\|newspaper=About Zimbabwe, Official Government of Zimbabwe Web Portal\|title=History of Zimbabwe\|url=https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412191116/https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-date=2024-04-12}}</ref>

			With many of the guerrillas trained in the early 1960s being killed or captured after attempts at engaging in conventional warfare, ZANU began a reassessment of policy between 1969 and 1972, shifting away from conventional confrontation and toward mobilization of the population to lay the groundwork for protracted struggle. As later explained by Herbert Chitepo, "After politicizing our people it became easier for them to co-operate with us and to identify with our programme."<ref name=":0" /><sup>:12-13</sup>

	On December 4, 1971, two ZANLA guerrillas, Justin Chauke and Amon Zindoga, crossed into northeastern Zimbabwe near Mukumbura, coming over from Mozambique's Tete Province, with the mission to begin laying the groundwork for protracted guerrilla warfare.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> A little over a year later, on December 21, 1972, a squad of nine ZANLA guerrillas attacked a settler-owned tobacco farm called Altena Farm, located in Mount Darwin in northeastern Zimbabwe.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":21">{{Web citation\|author=Ireen Mahamba\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=Battle of the north-eastern frontier…when ZANLA came home\|date=2019-06-27\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/battle-of-the-north-eastern-frontier-when-zanla-came-home/}}</ref> This was the first settler farm to be attacked since 1966. At the time the farm was in the hands of a settler named Marc de Borchgrave who was a leading tobacco farmer, known for his poor labor relations. De Borchgrave and one of his children were lightly wounded in the attack. One white Rhodesian soldier was killed by a landmine, while five others were injured.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> An article in the news outlet The Patriot emphasizes that "A LOT of work had been going on behind the scenes before the opening of the north-eastern frontier of our war of liberation" and states that "by the time the first shots rang out at Altena Farm [...] everything was in place for ZANLA to operate from the north-eastern frontier" and analyzes this attack as "the precursor to other frontiers which would ultimately dismantle Rhodesian forces."<ref name=":21" /> The authors of ''The Struggle for Zimbabwe'' evaluate that "this attack marked the change from the sporadic, and the militarily ineffectual, actions of the Sixties, to protracted armed struggle."<ref name=":0" /><sup>xvii</sup>		On December 4, 1971, two ZANLA guerrillas, Justin Chauke and Amon Zindoga, crossed into northeastern Zimbabwe near Mukumbura, coming over from Mozambique's Tete Province, with the mission to begin laying the groundwork for protracted guerrilla warfare.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> A little over a year later, on December 21, 1972, a squad of nine ZANLA guerrillas attacked a settler-owned tobacco farm called Altena Farm, located in Mount Darwin in northeastern Zimbabwe.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":21">{{Web citation\|author=Ireen Mahamba\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=Battle of the north-eastern frontier…when ZANLA came home\|date=2019-06-27\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/battle-of-the-north-eastern-frontier-when-zanla-came-home/}}</ref> This was the first settler farm to be attacked since 1966. At the time the farm was in the hands of a settler named Marc de Borchgrave who was a leading tobacco farmer, known for his poor labor relations. De Borchgrave and one of his children were lightly wounded in the attack. One white Rhodesian soldier was killed by a landmine, while five others were injured.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> An article in the news outlet The Patriot emphasizes that "A LOT of work had been going on behind the scenes before the opening of the north-eastern frontier of our war of liberation" and states that "by the time the first shots rang out at Altena Farm [...] everything was in place for ZANLA to operate from the north-eastern frontier" and analyzes this attack as "the precursor to other frontiers which would ultimately dismantle Rhodesian forces."<ref name=":21" /> The authors of ''The Struggle for Zimbabwe'' evaluate that "this attack marked the change from the sporadic, and the militarily ineffectual, actions of the Sixties, to protracted armed struggle."<ref name=":0" /><sup>xvii</sup>

Verda.Majo: added some detail about FRELIMO and ZANLA operations in Tete; filled in some info under the foreign mercenaries section

2026-03-14T04:36:30Z

added some detail about FRELIMO and ZANLA operations in Tete; filled in some info under the foreign mercenaries section

← Older revision		Revision as of 04:36, 14 March 2026
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	The guerrilla forces of Zimbabwe's national liberation struggle had training camps and bases in various countries of the region, initially in Tanzania, and later also in Mozambique, Zambia, and Angola. The Frontline States also provided a diplomatic base for the movement.<ref name=":27" /> While Zimbabwe's national liberation movement remained for the most part split between ZANU and ZAPU (and their separate armed wings, ZANLA and ZIPRA), the Frontline States made various attempts at fostering a greater level of unity among the movement, though the differing national liberation organizations at various times expressed major dissatisfaction with the arrangements favored by the Frontline States.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Robert Mugabe\|year=1983\|title=Our War of Liberation\|title-url=Library:Our_War_of_Liberation\|chapter=Introduction by N M Shamuyarira and C M B Utete\|quote=In Lusaka, the Frontline leaders wanted to unite ZANU, ZAPU, ANC, and FROLIZI. Their original plan was that Nkomo would be President of the unified movement, with Muzorewa as his Deputy and Sithole as Secretary-General. It fell through because the ZANU delegation did not accept the dissolution of the party and Nkomo's leadership. They wanted the war to continue. However, under heavy pressure an criticism from the leaders of the Frontline states, Sithole, Nkomo, Muzorewa and Chikerema signed the Zimbabwe Declaration of Unity of 8 December 1974. [...] ZIPA, as has been said, was set up with the blessing of the Frontline leaders — in an effort to bypass established national leadership in favour of the military commanders. From the start, it was crippled by internal contradictions. It was unable to establish itself as a political organisation. ZANLA and ZIPRA never merged within it. The Frontline leaders were ultimately forced to begin looking for a viable political formation to fill the void at meetings in Maputo and Dar es Salaam.}}</ref>		The guerrilla forces of Zimbabwe's national liberation struggle had training camps and bases in various countries of the region, initially in Tanzania, and later also in Mozambique, Zambia, and Angola. The Frontline States also provided a diplomatic base for the movement.<ref name=":27" /> While Zimbabwe's national liberation movement remained for the most part split between ZANU and ZAPU (and their separate armed wings, ZANLA and ZIPRA), the Frontline States made various attempts at fostering a greater level of unity among the movement, though the differing national liberation organizations at various times expressed major dissatisfaction with the arrangements favored by the Frontline States.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Robert Mugabe\|year=1983\|title=Our War of Liberation\|title-url=Library:Our_War_of_Liberation\|chapter=Introduction by N M Shamuyarira and C M B Utete\|quote=In Lusaka, the Frontline leaders wanted to unite ZANU, ZAPU, ANC, and FROLIZI. Their original plan was that Nkomo would be President of the unified movement, with Muzorewa as his Deputy and Sithole as Secretary-General. It fell through because the ZANU delegation did not accept the dissolution of the party and Nkomo's leadership. They wanted the war to continue. However, under heavy pressure an criticism from the leaders of the Frontline states, Sithole, Nkomo, Muzorewa and Chikerema signed the Zimbabwe Declaration of Unity of 8 December 1974. [...] ZIPA, as has been said, was set up with the blessing of the Frontline leaders — in an effort to bypass established national leadership in favour of the military commanders. From the start, it was crippled by internal contradictions. It was unable to establish itself as a political organisation. ZANLA and ZIPRA never merged within it. The Frontline leaders were ultimately forced to begin looking for a viable political formation to fill the void at meetings in Maputo and Dar es Salaam.}}</ref>

	Speaking on Tanzania's involvement, former military instructor Humphrey Makuyana recalled in an interview that early on, ZANLA's training efforts were "fragmented, small-scale and constrained by limited infrastructure"<ref name=":28">{{Web citation\|newspaper=Herald Online\|title=Nachingwea became strategic engine of Zanla\|date=2026-03-08\|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260308145954/https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/?__cf_chl_rt_tk=I17QAit7dbS.KuSyAOKp9llIDx1CQfI3G6M8eSeCETY-1772981994-1.0.1.1-zB6gN6jhM2g7RIdg4SoYqMUyBxDXwr0XA0BixFSZ.R0\|archive-date=2026-03-08}}</ref> but that later on, the opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania was a decisive turning point in the struggle:<blockquote>The opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania to ZANLA marked a decisive turning point in the struggle. More than a mere training facility, Nachingwea became the strategic engine of ZANLA, producing the highest volume of recruits and some of the most proficient fighters of the war. [...] Crucially, the effectiveness of these forces was complemented by ZIPRA cadres, who were trained in Angola and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)\|Soviet Union]], and deployed primarily to the north-western regions of Rhodesia. Together, these parallel training pipelines transformed the war into a multi-front, multi-doctrinal struggle that the Rhodesian regime could no longer contain.<ref name=":28" /></blockquote>Makuyana expressed that this facility enabled ZANLA to train at least five thousand recruits per intake in a continuous and organized manner, ensuring a steady flow of fighters into operational zones. The late-1970s surge in ZANLA's presence across rural and semi-urban areas was attributed to this increased capacity. Makuyana also commented on the political education at this facility, which he said emphasized nationalism, Pan-Africanism and socialist-oriented ideology.<ref name=":28" />		Prior to Mozambique's formal independence, FRELIMO had opened a passage into Rhodesia through Tete province as early as 1970. ZANLA began operating from these liberated areas with assistance from FRELIMO in 1971.<ref name=":27" /><sup>:12</sup>

			Speaking on Tanzania's involvement, former military instructor Humphrey Makuyana recalled in an interview that early on, ZANLA's training efforts were "fragmented, small-scale and constrained by limited infrastructure"<ref name=":28">{{Web citation\|newspaper=Herald Online\|title=Nachingwea became strategic engine of Zanla\|date=2026-03-08\|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260308145954/https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/nachingwea-became-strategic-engine-of-zanla/?__cf_chl_rt_tk=I17QAit7dbS.KuSyAOKp9llIDx1CQfI3G6M8eSeCETY-1772981994-1.0.1.1-zB6gN6jhM2g7RIdg4SoYqMUyBxDXwr0XA0BixFSZ.R0\|archive-date=2026-03-08}}</ref> but that later on, the opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania, which ZANLA began using in 1976,<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=ZBC News\|title=Nachingwea: the historic camp that trained 15 000 ZANLA guerrillas\|date=2025-08-27\|url=https://www.zbcnews.co.zw/nachingwea-the-historic-camp-that-trained-15-000-zanla-guerrillas/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=nachingwea-the-historic-camp-that-trained-15-000-zanla-guerrillas\|quote=Since its adoption as a training camp by ZANLA forces in 1976, Nachingwea produced more than 15 000 guerrillas comprising Songambele, Fanya Haraka and Maliza groups.}}</ref> was a decisive turning point in the struggle:<blockquote>The opening of the Nachingwea Training Garrison in Tanzania to ZANLA marked a decisive turning point in the struggle. More than a mere training facility, Nachingwea became the strategic engine of ZANLA, producing the highest volume of recruits and some of the most proficient fighters of the war. [...] Crucially, the effectiveness of these forces was complemented by ZIPRA cadres, who were trained in Angola and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)\|Soviet Union]], and deployed primarily to the north-western regions of Rhodesia. Together, these parallel training pipelines transformed the war into a multi-front, multi-doctrinal struggle that the Rhodesian regime could no longer contain.<ref name=":28" /></blockquote>Makuyana expressed that this facility enabled ZANLA to train at least five thousand recruits per intake in a continuous and organized manner, ensuring a steady flow of fighters into operational zones. The late-1970s surge in ZANLA's presence across rural and semi-urban areas was attributed to this increased capacity. Makuyana also commented on the political education at this facility, which he said emphasized nationalism, Pan-Africanism and socialist-oriented ideology.<ref name=":28" />

	===== Socialist countries =====		===== Socialist countries =====
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	===== Foreign mercenaries =====		===== Foreign mercenaries =====
			Numerous mercenaries came to fight in support of the settler-colonial "Rhodesian" regime, motivated by various sentiments including [[white supremacy]] and [[anti-communism]] as well as factors such as [[unemployment]] after serving in the imperialist military. Many of the mercenaries who came from the US were [[Vietnam War\|Vietnam war]] veterans who were dissatisfied with the US handling of the Vietnam war and sought to take matters into their own hands in suppressing communism and majority rule emerging in southern Africa. ''[[Soldier of Fortune]]'' magazine, founded in 1975, was one notable recruiting vector for such mercenaries; its pages "brimmed with job-seeking ads from anonymous men hoping to find adventure and fortune abroad" and "glamorized the mercenary life [...] which promised independence, risk, and reward with a bit of hard-drinking and womanizing on the side." Meanwhile, the Rhodesian government paid their airfare and expenses and expected the mercenaries who joined its army to settle there, in an attempt to shore up the racist settler-colony's shrinking white population.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Kyle Burke\|newspaper=Jacobin\|title=Soldiers of Fortune\|date=2018-06-02\|url=https://jacobin.com/2018/06/american-soldiers-rhodesia-angola-conservative-movement}}</ref>

	== Events of the war ==		== Events of the war ==

Verda.Majo: typo correction, moved an image, created see main article link

2026-03-10T15:38:56Z

typo correction, moved an image, created see main article link

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:38, 10 March 2026
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	British colonialism in the region of what is now Zimbabwe was spearheaded by the invading Pioneer Column of the [[British South Africa Company]] (BSAC), founded by [[Cecil Rhodes]]. The colonization process dispossessed the indigenous peoples of their lands and expelled them to Native Reserves, later called Tribal Trust Lands.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">[https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/module-thirty-activity-three/ "The Land Question."] Module Thirty, Activity Three. Exploring Africa, Michigan State University African Studies Center. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240413182804/https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/module-thirty-activity-three/ Archived] 2024-04-13.</ref> Over the decades, indigenous Zimbabweans continued having their land and property seized and their rights and dignity trampled by settlers and the settler-colonial regime, while being forced to live in the arid and overcrowded Tribal Trust Lands and carry passes to enter designated "white" areas. Meanwhile, settlers profited from stolen land and cattle acquired through various government policies which routinely transferred African land and property to white settlers.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Michelina Andreucci\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=The lingering legacy of colonialism: Part One…the situpa as an oppressive, racist instrument\|date=2017-06-30\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/the-lingering-legacy-of-colonialism-part-onethe-situpa-as-an-oppressive-racist-instrument/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250222032935/https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/the-lingering-legacy-of-colonialism-part-onethe-situpa-as-an-oppressive-racist-instrument/\|archive-date=2025-02-22}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=A. S. Mlambo\|year=2014\|title=A history of Zimbabwe\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofzimbabw0000mlam}}</ref> Over time, indigenous Zimbabweans engaged in mounting forms of resistance against this oppressive situation, taking a variety of forms including engaging in boycotts, strikes, forming trade unions, associations, and African churches.<ref name=":2" />		British colonialism in the region of what is now Zimbabwe was spearheaded by the invading Pioneer Column of the [[British South Africa Company]] (BSAC), founded by [[Cecil Rhodes]]. The colonization process dispossessed the indigenous peoples of their lands and expelled them to Native Reserves, later called Tribal Trust Lands.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">[https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/module-thirty-activity-three/ "The Land Question."] Module Thirty, Activity Three. Exploring Africa, Michigan State University African Studies Center. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240413182804/https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/module-thirty-activity-three/ Archived] 2024-04-13.</ref> Over the decades, indigenous Zimbabweans continued having their land and property seized and their rights and dignity trampled by settlers and the settler-colonial regime, while being forced to live in the arid and overcrowded Tribal Trust Lands and carry passes to enter designated "white" areas. Meanwhile, settlers profited from stolen land and cattle acquired through various government policies which routinely transferred African land and property to white settlers.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Michelina Andreucci\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=The lingering legacy of colonialism: Part One…the situpa as an oppressive, racist instrument\|date=2017-06-30\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/the-lingering-legacy-of-colonialism-part-onethe-situpa-as-an-oppressive-racist-instrument/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250222032935/https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/the-lingering-legacy-of-colonialism-part-onethe-situpa-as-an-oppressive-racist-instrument/\|archive-date=2025-02-22}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=A. S. Mlambo\|year=2014\|title=A history of Zimbabwe\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofzimbabw0000mlam}}</ref> Over time, indigenous Zimbabweans engaged in mounting forms of resistance against this oppressive situation, taking a variety of forms including engaging in boycotts, strikes, forming trade unions, associations, and African churches.<ref name=":2" />

	1957 saw the formation of the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress (SRANC, shortened to ANC) which engaged in demonstrations challenging unpopular government policies. By 1959, the colonial regime declared a state of emergency and banned the ANC under the newly created Unlawful Organisations Act, and 500 political leaders were arrested. Zimbabweans formed increasingly militant organizations which were successively banned by the colonial regime, including the National Democratic Party (NDP) in 1960 under [[Joshua Nkomo]]. NDP was banned in 1961 and the Zimbabwean African People's Union (ZAPU) was then formed, also under Nkomo. Meanwhile, white settlers anxieties over black African resistance were mounting and they formed the Rhodesian Front (RF) party in 1962, winning that year's elections. In 1963 a split in ZAPU occurred leading to the formation of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) under [[Ndabaningi Sithole]]. In 1965, RF co-founder Ian Smith announced the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of "Rhodesia" in which he declared the settler colony under white minority rule to be independent from Britain.<ref name=":2" />		1957 saw the formation of the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress (SRANC, shortened to ANC) which engaged in demonstrations challenging unpopular government policies. By 1959, the colonial regime declared a state of emergency and banned the ANC under the newly created Unlawful Organisations Act, and 500 political leaders were arrested. Zimbabweans formed increasingly militant organizations which were successively banned by the colonial regime, including the National Democratic Party (NDP) in 1960 under [[Joshua Nkomo]]. NDP was banned in 1961 and the Zimbabwean African People's Union (ZAPU) was then formed, also under Nkomo. Meanwhile, white settlers' anxieties over black African resistance were mounting and they formed the Rhodesian Front (RF) party in 1962, winning that year's elections. In 1963 a split in ZAPU occurred leading to the formation of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) under [[Ndabaningi Sithole]]. In 1965, RF co-founder Ian Smith announced the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of "Rhodesia" in which he declared the settler colony under white minority rule to be independent from Britain.<ref name=":2" />

	=== International context ===		=== International context ===
			[[File:Map of military activity in Zimbabwe circa 1974-1979.png\|alt=A map of Zimbabwe which shows ZANU/ZANLA bases in neighboring Mozambique and ZAPU/ZIPRA bases in neighboring Zambia as well as "infiltration routes" from those countries into Zimbabwe.\|thumb\|292x292px\|A map published by United States Army showing "insurgent staging and operational areas" in Zimbabwe (labelled "Rhodesia") from 1974-1979, including ZANU/ZANLA bases in Mozambique and ZAPU/ZIPRA bases in Zambia.]]
	Throughout the time period which the Second Chimurenga spanned, Zimbabwe's neighboring countries in southern Africa were also undergoing revolutionary struggles, with various interactions between the movements of the respective countries as well as between their governments at the time. As differing organizations within Zimbabwe's national liberation movement would be aided or at times hindered by different countries internationally, as well as establish headquarters in exile and guerrilla training operations in different countries, it is important to note the international context at various points in the struggle. The status of the various national liberation movements, independent African states, and reactionary colonizer regimes of the region and the shifting situations within each of these countries over time impacted each other's revolutions in a variety of ways.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Ngwabi M Bhebe\|newspaper=Herald Online Sunday News\|title=Frontline States and African liberation\|date=2015-05-17\|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/frontline-states-and-african-liberation/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215161745/https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/frontline-states-and-african-liberation/\|archive-date=2026-02-15}}</ref> Beyond the region itself, the machinations and internal affairs of imperial core countries, the overall dynamics of the [[Cold War]], and the impacts of the [[Sino-Soviet split]] would also come to have an effect on the liberation movements in southern Africa.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Alexandr Voevodskiy\|title=Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union, and Africa\|title-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370096258_7_The_Sino-Soviet_Split_and_Soviet_Policy_towards_Southern_African_Liberation_Movements_in_the_early_1960s\|chapter=The Sino-Soviet Split and Soviet Policy towards Southern African Liberation Movements in the early 1960s\|page=179-198\|quote=The Soviet-Chinese split had a significant impact on the activities of the Southern African liberation movements. [...] The ideological disputes [...] placed the Africans in the position of having to choose one of the conflicting parties. This situation was extremely inconvenient, since in their struggle against the colonial and racist regimes in Southern Africa, the liberation movements counted on the support of both the USSR and China. [...] The USSR, for one reason or another, refused to give assistance to such organizations as ZANU, PAC, SWANU, Coremo, etc. Initially, these organizations did not reject the possibility of cooperation with the Soviet Union. At the Afro-Asian forums and meetings with Soviet representatives, they asked for various kinds of assistance and for their students to be accepted for training in Soviet educational institutions. However, each time they ran into a blank wall. The USSR, relying on the ANC, ZAPU, SWAPO, FRELIMO, and MPLA, could not cooperate with competing groups. Their orientation towards Beijing closed the possibility of cooperation with the USSR and its closest allies.}}</ref>		Throughout the time period which the Second Chimurenga spanned, Zimbabwe's neighboring countries in southern Africa were also undergoing revolutionary struggles, with various interactions between the movements of the respective countries as well as between their governments at the time. As differing organizations within Zimbabwe's national liberation movement would be aided or at times hindered by different countries internationally, as well as establish headquarters in exile and guerrilla training operations in different countries, it is important to note the international context at various points in the struggle. The status of the various national liberation movements, independent African states, and reactionary colonizer regimes of the region and the shifting situations within each of these countries over time impacted each other's revolutions in a variety of ways.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Ngwabi M Bhebe\|newspaper=Herald Online Sunday News\|title=Frontline States and African liberation\|date=2015-05-17\|url=https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/frontline-states-and-african-liberation/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215161745/https://www.heraldonline.co.zw/frontline-states-and-african-liberation/\|archive-date=2026-02-15}}</ref> Beyond the region itself, the machinations and internal affairs of imperial core countries, the overall dynamics of the [[Cold War]], and the impacts of the [[Sino-Soviet split]] would also come to have an effect on the liberation movements in southern Africa.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Alexandr Voevodskiy\|title=Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union, and Africa\|title-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370096258_7_The_Sino-Soviet_Split_and_Soviet_Policy_towards_Southern_African_Liberation_Movements_in_the_early_1960s\|chapter=The Sino-Soviet Split and Soviet Policy towards Southern African Liberation Movements in the early 1960s\|page=179-198\|quote=The Soviet-Chinese split had a significant impact on the activities of the Southern African liberation movements. [...] The ideological disputes [...] placed the Africans in the position of having to choose one of the conflicting parties. This situation was extremely inconvenient, since in their struggle against the colonial and racist regimes in Southern Africa, the liberation movements counted on the support of both the USSR and China. [...] The USSR, for one reason or another, refused to give assistance to such organizations as ZANU, PAC, SWANU, Coremo, etc. Initially, these organizations did not reject the possibility of cooperation with the Soviet Union. At the Afro-Asian forums and meetings with Soviet representatives, they asked for various kinds of assistance and for their students to be accepted for training in Soviet educational institutions. However, each time they ran into a blank wall. The USSR, relying on the ANC, ZAPU, SWAPO, FRELIMO, and MPLA, could not cooperate with competing groups. Their orientation towards Beijing closed the possibility of cooperation with the USSR and its closest allies.}}</ref>

	===== Colonial regimes =====		===== Colonial regimes =====
	[[File:Map of military activity in Zimbabwe circa 1974-1979.png\|alt=A map of Zimbabwe which shows ZANU/ZANLA bases in neighboring Mozambique and ZAPU/ZIPRA bases in neighboring Zambia as well as "infiltration routes" from those countries into Zimbabwe.\|thumb\|292x292px\|A map published by United States Army showing "insurgent staging and operational areas" in Zimbabwe (labelled "Rhodesia") from 1974-1979, including ZANU/ZANLA bases in Mozambique and ZAPU/ZIPRA bases in Zambia.]]
	At the start of the Second Chimurenga, colonial regimes of southern Africa included [[Republic of South Africa\|South Africa]], Zimbabwe (then "Rhodesia"), and [[Republic of Namibia\|Namibia]] ("South West Africa")—with Namibia having come under the control of South Africa following World War I—as well as [[Republic of Angola\|Angola]] and [[Republic of Mozambique\|Mozambique]] (the latter two becoming independent from [[Portuguese Republic\|Portuguese]] colonial rule in 1975).<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" />		At the start of the Second Chimurenga, colonial regimes of southern Africa included [[Republic of South Africa\|South Africa]], Zimbabwe (then "Rhodesia"), and [[Republic of Namibia\|Namibia]] ("South West Africa")—with Namibia having come under the control of South Africa following World War I—as well as [[Republic of Angola\|Angola]] and [[Republic of Mozambique\|Mozambique]] (the latter two becoming independent from [[Portuguese Republic\|Portuguese]] colonial rule in 1975).<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" />

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	===== Independent African countries =====		===== Independent African countries =====
	[[File:Map detail of southern Africa with independence dates.png\|alt=A map detail showing southern African countries with their formal dates of independence. Includes Tanzania (1961), Malawi (1964), Zambia (1964), Botswana (1966), Lesotho (1966), Swaziland (1968), Angola (1975), Mozambique (1975), Zimbabwe (1980), Namibia (1990). South Africa is labelled saying "Union in 1910 and de facto independence in 1931."\|thumb\|291x291px\|A map detail showing countries in southern Africa with their formal dates of independence.]]		[[File:Map detail of southern Africa with independence dates.png\|alt=A map detail showing southern African countries with their formal dates of independence. Includes Tanzania (1961), Malawi (1964), Zambia (1964), Botswana (1966), Lesotho (1966), Swaziland (1968), Angola (1975), Mozambique (1975), Zimbabwe (1980), Namibia (1990). South Africa is labelled saying "Union in 1910 and de facto independence in 1931."\|thumb\|291x291px\|A map detail showing countries in southern Africa with their formal dates of independence.]]
	By the mid-1960s, Zimbabwe's neighboring countries [[Republic of Zambia\|Zambia]] and [[Republic of Botswana\|Botswana]] had gained formal independence from European colonialism. Later, in 1975, Mozambique and Angola gained independence. Though not an immediate neighbor of Zimbabwe, Tanzania also had involvement in various international negotiation proceedings and provided various forms of support to national liberation movements in Africa, including Zimbabwe's.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Chambi Chachage, Annar Cassam (Eds.)\|year=2010\|title=Africa's Liberation\|title-url=https://library.memoryoftheworld.org/#/book/18959308-a6be-48b2-bfbc-3d07deb88357\|chapter=Mwalimu Julius Nyerere: an intellectual in power (Haroub Othman)\|page=38-9\|quote=Frelimo was founded in Tanzania; the ANC, after its banning in South Africa, opened its first external mission in Tanzania; and MOLINACO, MPLA, ZANU, ZAPU, PAC and many others had Tanzania's full support. In the UN Decolonisation Committee (known as the Committee of 24), Tanzania's then permanent representative to the UN, Salim Ahmed Salim, held the chairmanship for several years. [...] Tanzania's support to the liberation movements was not only manifested in the political and diplomatic arenas but also in the material and military fields.\|publisher=Pambazuka Press}}</ref> The group of anti-apartheid independent African countries known as the [[Frontline States]] included Zambia, Tanzania, Botswana, Mozambique, and Angola—with Zimbabwe joining them after 1980.<ref name=":27">{{Citation\|author=Carol B. Thompson\|year=1985\|title=Challenge to Imperialism: The Frontline States in the Liberation of Zimbabwe}}</ref>		{{Main article\|Frontline States}}By the mid-1960s, Zimbabwe's neighboring countries [[Republic of Zambia\|Zambia]] and [[Republic of Botswana\|Botswana]] had gained formal independence from European colonialism. Later, in 1975, Mozambique and Angola gained independence. Though not an immediate neighbor of Zimbabwe, Tanzania also had involvement in various international negotiation proceedings and provided various forms of support to national liberation movements in Africa, including Zimbabwe's.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Chambi Chachage, Annar Cassam (Eds.)\|year=2010\|title=Africa's Liberation\|title-url=https://library.memoryoftheworld.org/#/book/18959308-a6be-48b2-bfbc-3d07deb88357\|chapter=Mwalimu Julius Nyerere: an intellectual in power (Haroub Othman)\|page=38-9\|quote=Frelimo was founded in Tanzania; the ANC, after its banning in South Africa, opened its first external mission in Tanzania; and MOLINACO, MPLA, ZANU, ZAPU, PAC and many others had Tanzania's full support. In the UN Decolonisation Committee (known as the Committee of 24), Tanzania's then permanent representative to the UN, Salim Ahmed Salim, held the chairmanship for several years. [...] Tanzania's support to the liberation movements was not only manifested in the political and diplomatic arenas but also in the material and military fields.\|publisher=Pambazuka Press}}</ref> The group of anti-apartheid independent African countries known as the [[Frontline States]] included Zambia, Tanzania, Botswana, Mozambique, and Angola—with Zimbabwe joining them after 1980.<ref name=":27">{{Citation\|author=Carol B. Thompson\|year=1985\|title=Challenge to Imperialism: The Frontline States in the Liberation of Zimbabwe}}</ref>

	The guerrilla forces of Zimbabwe's national liberation struggle had training camps and bases in various countries of the region, initially in Tanzania, and later also in Mozambique, Zambia, and Angola. The Frontline States also provided a diplomatic base for the movement.<ref name=":27" /> While Zimbabwe's national liberation movement remained for the most part split between ZANU and ZAPU (and their separate armed wings, ZANLA and ZIPRA), the Frontline States made various attempts at fostering a greater level of unity among the movement, though the differing national liberation organizations at various times expressed major dissatisfaction with the arrangements favored by the Frontline States.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Robert Mugabe\|year=1983\|title=Our War of Liberation\|title-url=Library:Our_War_of_Liberation\|chapter=Introduction by N M Shamuyarira and C M B Utete\|quote=In Lusaka, the Frontline leaders wanted to unite ZANU, ZAPU, ANC, and FROLIZI. Their original plan was that Nkomo would be President of the unified movement, with Muzorewa as his Deputy and Sithole as Secretary-General. It fell through because the ZANU delegation did not accept the dissolution of the party and Nkomo's leadership. They wanted the war to continue. However, under heavy pressure an criticism from the leaders of the Frontline states, Sithole, Nkomo, Muzorewa and Chikerema signed the Zimbabwe Declaration of Unity of 8 December 1974. [...] ZIPA, as has been said, was set up with the blessing of the Frontline leaders — in an effort to bypass established national leadership in favour of the military commanders. From the start, it was crippled by internal contradictions. It was unable to establish itself as a political organisation. ZANLA and ZIPRA never merged within it. The Frontline leaders were ultimately forced to begin looking for a viable political formation to fill the void at meetings in Maputo and Dar es Salaam.}}</ref>		The guerrilla forces of Zimbabwe's national liberation struggle had training camps and bases in various countries of the region, initially in Tanzania, and later also in Mozambique, Zambia, and Angola. The Frontline States also provided a diplomatic base for the movement.<ref name=":27" /> While Zimbabwe's national liberation movement remained for the most part split between ZANU and ZAPU (and their separate armed wings, ZANLA and ZIPRA), the Frontline States made various attempts at fostering a greater level of unity among the movement, though the differing national liberation organizations at various times expressed major dissatisfaction with the arrangements favored by the Frontline States.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Robert Mugabe\|year=1983\|title=Our War of Liberation\|title-url=Library:Our_War_of_Liberation\|chapter=Introduction by N M Shamuyarira and C M B Utete\|quote=In Lusaka, the Frontline leaders wanted to unite ZANU, ZAPU, ANC, and FROLIZI. Their original plan was that Nkomo would be President of the unified movement, with Muzorewa as his Deputy and Sithole as Secretary-General. It fell through because the ZANU delegation did not accept the dissolution of the party and Nkomo's leadership. They wanted the war to continue. However, under heavy pressure an criticism from the leaders of the Frontline states, Sithole, Nkomo, Muzorewa and Chikerema signed the Zimbabwe Declaration of Unity of 8 December 1974. [...] ZIPA, as has been said, was set up with the blessing of the Frontline leaders — in an effort to bypass established national leadership in favour of the military commanders. From the start, it was crippled by internal contradictions. It was unable to establish itself as a political organisation. ZANLA and ZIPRA never merged within it. The Frontline leaders were ultimately forced to begin looking for a viable political formation to fill the void at meetings in Maputo and Dar es Salaam.}}</ref>

Verda.Majo: /* Background */ expanded section

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Background: expanded section

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	=== First Chimurenga ===		=== First Chimurenga ===
	Zimbabwe's [[First Chimurenga]] refers to the Shona and [[Ndebele]] uprisings against [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\|British]] [[colonialism]] in the 1890s. The First Chimurenga would come to serve as a source of inspiration for Zimbabwe's later national liberation struggle against the settler-colonial regime of so-called "Rhodesia" throughout the 1960s and 70s.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Pamusoroi!\|title=The Second Chimurenga (ca. 1964)\|url=https://pamusoroi.com/today-in-history/the-second-chimurenga-ca-1964\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304082820/https://pamusoroi.com/today-in-history/the-second-chimurenga-ca-1964\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref> As ZANU leader [[Herbert Chitepo]] explained in 1973, "No doubt our old people then, our grandfathers in 1893, '94, '95, '96, '97, during those wars, fought gallantly with [[Bow and arrow\|bows and arrows]] [...] and they were faced against [[Musket\|muskets]], they were faced against [[Maxim gun\|Maxim guns]]. And they were defeated. To that day our African people have never accepted that position. Quietly, sometimes, without words, they have continued to look upon that land as theirs, continued to prepare the day, for the day when they must wrest it back into their own control."<ref name=":1" />		Zimbabwe's [[First Chimurenga]] refers to the Shona and [[Ndebele]] uprisings against [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\|British]] [[colonialism]] in the 1890s. The First Chimurenga would come to serve as a source of inspiration for Zimbabwe's later national liberation struggle against the settler-colonial regime of so-called "Rhodesia" throughout the 1960s and 70s.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Pamusoroi!\|title=The Second Chimurenga (ca. 1964)\|url=https://pamusoroi.com/today-in-history/the-second-chimurenga-ca-1964\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304082820/https://pamusoroi.com/today-in-history/the-second-chimurenga-ca-1964\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref> As ZANU leader [[Herbert Chitepo]] explained in 1973, "No doubt our old people then, our grandfathers in 1893, '94, '95, '96, '97, during those wars, fought gallantly with [[Bow and arrow\|bows and arrows]] [...] and they were faced against [[Musket\|muskets]], they were faced against [[Maxim gun\|Maxim guns]]. And they were defeated. To that day our African people have never accepted that position. Quietly, sometimes, without words, they have continued to look upon that land as theirs, continued to prepare the day, for the day when they must wrest it back into their own control."<ref name=":1" />

			=== Pre-war colonial situation ===
			{{Quote\|So, you get a situation today in which, in actual fact, the so-called fifty percent of the land that is reserved to the now six million African people is actually the poorest, the most barren, and the most disease-infected because all the best land had already been taken even by the time that the Land Apportionment Act was introduced in 1931. [...] I could go into whole field within discrimination in legislation, in residence, in economic opportunities, in education, I could go into that. But I will restrict myself to the question of land because I think this is very basic. To us, the essence of exploitation, the essence of white domination, is domination over land. That is the real issue. The essence of what they have done to us has been the deprivation that they have done by taking the land away from us. And this is a very serious situation. [...] We looked upon the situation we were facing. It was clear we were facing a situation of assault, a situation of violence. We were at all intents and purposes being made under compulsion, under force, under duress, of a very vicious type, to serve in the mines, to be minions, to have no place, no education, to live like serfs in the country of our birth. We thought no, the time had come to change tactics. We will have to confront the regime. We can no longer beg it to talk to us. It won't talk to us. We must now confront it.\|Herbert Chitepo\|\|1973, [https://en.prolewiki.org/wiki/Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club Herbert Chitepo at the National Press Club (ca. 1973)]}}
			British colonialism in the region of what is now Zimbabwe was spearheaded by the invading Pioneer Column of the [[British South Africa Company]] (BSAC), founded by [[Cecil Rhodes]]. The colonization process dispossessed the indigenous peoples of their lands and expelled them to Native Reserves, later called Tribal Trust Lands.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">[https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/module-thirty-activity-three/ "The Land Question."] Module Thirty, Activity Three. Exploring Africa, Michigan State University African Studies Center. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240413182804/https://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/module-thirty-activity-three/ Archived] 2024-04-13.</ref> Over the decades, indigenous Zimbabweans continued having their land and property seized and their rights and dignity trampled by settlers and the settler-colonial regime, while being forced to live in the arid and overcrowded Tribal Trust Lands and carry passes to enter designated "white" areas. Meanwhile, settlers profited from stolen land and cattle acquired through various government policies which routinely transferred African land and property to white settlers.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Web citation\|author=Michelina Andreucci\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=The lingering legacy of colonialism: Part One…the situpa as an oppressive, racist instrument\|date=2017-06-30\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/the-lingering-legacy-of-colonialism-part-onethe-situpa-as-an-oppressive-racist-instrument/\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250222032935/https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/the-lingering-legacy-of-colonialism-part-onethe-situpa-as-an-oppressive-racist-instrument/\|archive-date=2025-02-22}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=A. S. Mlambo\|year=2014\|title=A history of Zimbabwe\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofzimbabw0000mlam}}</ref> Over time, indigenous Zimbabweans engaged in mounting forms of resistance against this oppressive situation, taking a variety of forms including engaging in boycotts, strikes, forming trade unions, associations, and African churches.<ref name=":2" />

			1957 saw the formation of the Southern Rhodesian African National Congress (SRANC, shortened to ANC) which engaged in demonstrations challenging unpopular government policies. By 1959, the colonial regime declared a state of emergency and banned the ANC under the newly created Unlawful Organisations Act, and 500 political leaders were arrested. Zimbabweans formed increasingly militant organizations which were successively banned by the colonial regime, including the National Democratic Party (NDP) in 1960 under [[Joshua Nkomo]]. NDP was banned in 1961 and the Zimbabwean African People's Union (ZAPU) was then formed, also under Nkomo. Meanwhile, white settlers anxieties over black African resistance were mounting and they formed the Rhodesian Front (RF) party in 1962, winning that year's elections. In 1963 a split in ZAPU occurred leading to the formation of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) under [[Ndabaningi Sithole]]. In 1965, RF co-founder Ian Smith announced the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of "Rhodesia" in which he declared the settler colony under white minority rule to be independent from Britain.<ref name=":2" />

	=== International context ===		=== International context ===
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	On April 28, 1966, in what is known as the battle of Chinhoyi,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Tichaona Zindoga\|newspaper=The Herald\|title=Chinhoyi Battle: The last man standing\|date=2015-04-29\|url=https://www.herald.co.zw/chinhoyi-battle-the-last-man-standing/}}</ref> a squad of seven guerrillas of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU, engaged in a twelve-hour battle with Rhodesian security forces which were backed by helicopter gunships, with the guerrillas eventually losing their lives in the battle. Although previous acts of resistance had occurred, the Chinhoyi battle is considered to be the first act of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe's liberation war.<ref name=":0" />		On April 28, 1966, in what is known as the battle of Chinhoyi,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Tichaona Zindoga\|newspaper=The Herald\|title=Chinhoyi Battle: The last man standing\|date=2015-04-29\|url=https://www.herald.co.zw/chinhoyi-battle-the-last-man-standing/}}</ref> a squad of seven guerrillas of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU, engaged in a twelve-hour battle with Rhodesian security forces which were backed by helicopter gunships, with the guerrillas eventually losing their lives in the battle. Although previous acts of resistance had occurred, the Chinhoyi battle is considered to be the first act of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe's liberation war.<ref name=":0" />

	Another early series of engagements occurred in 1967, known as the Wankie (or Hwange) Campaign, called "Operation Nickel" by the Rhodesian forces, in which an alliance of forces from ZAPU's Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and the [[uMkhonto weSizwe]] (MK) of South Africa's [[African National Congress\|ANC]] were attempting to move undetected from Zambia to South Africa by traveling the outskirts of Hwange Game Reserve, but they were eventually detected by Rhodesian forces and fought in a number of armed clashes.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=MK’s Luthuli Detachment and ZAPU in a joint operation\|date=2011-03-16\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304075845/https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=About Zimbabwe, Official Government of Zimbabwe Web Portal\|title=History of Zimbabwe\|url=https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412191116/https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-date=2024-04-12}}</ref>		Another early series of engagements occurred in 1967, known as the Wankie (or Hwange) Campaign, called "Operation Nickel" by the Rhodesian forces, in which an alliance of forces from ZAPU's Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and the [[uMkhonto weSizwe]] (MK) of South Africa's [[African National Congress\|ANC]] were attempting to move undetected from Zambia to South Africa by traveling the outskirts of Hwange Game Reserve, but they were eventually detected by Rhodesian forces and fought in a number of armed clashes.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=MK’s Luthuli Detachment and ZAPU in a joint operation\|date=2011-03-16\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304075845/https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Web citation\|newspaper=About Zimbabwe, Official Government of Zimbabwe Web Portal\|title=History of Zimbabwe\|url=https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412191116/https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-date=2024-04-12}}</ref>

	On December 4, 1971, two ZANLA guerrillas, Justin Chauke and Amon Zindoga, crossed into northeastern Zimbabwe near Mukumbura, coming over from Mozambique's Tete Province, with the mission to begin laying the groundwork for protracted guerrilla warfare.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> A little over a year later, on December 21, 1972, a squad of nine ZANLA guerrillas attacked a settler-owned tobacco farm called Altena Farm, located in Mount Darwin in northeastern Zimbabwe.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":21">{{Web citation\|author=Ireen Mahamba\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=Battle of the north-eastern frontier…when ZANLA came home\|date=2019-06-27\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/battle-of-the-north-eastern-frontier-when-zanla-came-home/}}</ref> This was the first settler farm to be attacked since 1966. At the time the farm was in the hands of a settler named Marc de Borchgrave who was a leading tobacco farmer, known for his poor labor relations. De Borchgrave and one of his children were lightly wounded in the attack. One white Rhodesian soldier was killed by a landmine, while five others were injured.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> An article in the news outlet The Patriot emphasizes that "A LOT of work had been going on behind the scenes before the opening of the north-eastern frontier of our war of liberation" and states that "by the time the first shots rang out at Altena Farm [...] everything was in place for ZANLA to operate from the north-eastern frontier" and analyzes this attack as "the precursor to other frontiers which would ultimately dismantle Rhodesian forces."<ref name=":21" /> The authors of ''The Struggle for Zimbabwe'' evaluate that "this attack marked the change from the sporadic, and the militarily ineffectual, actions of the Sixties, to protracted armed struggle."<ref name=":0" /><sup>xvii</sup>		On December 4, 1971, two ZANLA guerrillas, Justin Chauke and Amon Zindoga, crossed into northeastern Zimbabwe near Mukumbura, coming over from Mozambique's Tete Province, with the mission to begin laying the groundwork for protracted guerrilla warfare.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> A little over a year later, on December 21, 1972, a squad of nine ZANLA guerrillas attacked a settler-owned tobacco farm called Altena Farm, located in Mount Darwin in northeastern Zimbabwe.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":21">{{Web citation\|author=Ireen Mahamba\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=Battle of the north-eastern frontier…when ZANLA came home\|date=2019-06-27\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/battle-of-the-north-eastern-frontier-when-zanla-came-home/}}</ref> This was the first settler farm to be attacked since 1966. At the time the farm was in the hands of a settler named Marc de Borchgrave who was a leading tobacco farmer, known for his poor labor relations. De Borchgrave and one of his children were lightly wounded in the attack. One white Rhodesian soldier was killed by a landmine, while five others were injured.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> An article in the news outlet The Patriot emphasizes that "A LOT of work had been going on behind the scenes before the opening of the north-eastern frontier of our war of liberation" and states that "by the time the first shots rang out at Altena Farm [...] everything was in place for ZANLA to operate from the north-eastern frontier" and analyzes this attack as "the precursor to other frontiers which would ultimately dismantle Rhodesian forces."<ref name=":21" /> The authors of ''The Struggle for Zimbabwe'' evaluate that "this attack marked the change from the sporadic, and the militarily ineffectual, actions of the Sixties, to protracted armed struggle."<ref name=":0" /><sup>xvii</sup>

Verda.Majo: added some photos

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added some photos

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			[[File:ZANLA combatants holding up guns.png\|alt=Three ZANLA combatants stand side by side, each holding up a gun.\|thumb\|Three ZANLA combatants holding up guns.]]
	The '''Second Chimurenga''' refers to the [[national liberation]] [[war]] against [[Settler colonialism\|settler-colonial]] rule that took place in [[Republic of Zimbabwe\|Zimbabwe]] from the mid-1960s until Zimbabwe's formal independence in 1980.<ref name=":0">{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|publisher=Faber and Faber}}</ref> The [[Shona]] word ''chimurenga'' carries various meanings such as uprising, resistance, or [[revolution]].<ref>{{Library citation\|link=Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club\|quote=They rose up in rebellion. It was called the war of chimurenga. Chimurenga is a Shona word. [...] The word "chimurenga" means rebellion, means rising, a resistance, a war of resistance from oppression.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|chapter=Preface\|quote=The word ‘Chimurenga’ has a number of meanings in current usage—revolution, war, struggle or resistance—and one of ZANU’s main slogans during the second Chimurenga war was ‘Pamberi ne Chimurenga’, meaning ‘forward with the struggle or the revolution’.}}</ref>		The '''Second Chimurenga''' refers to the [[national liberation]] [[war]] against [[Settler colonialism\|settler-colonial]] rule that took place in [[Republic of Zimbabwe\|Zimbabwe]] from the mid-1960s until Zimbabwe's formal independence in 1980.<ref name=":0">{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|publisher=Faber and Faber}}</ref> The [[Shona]] word ''chimurenga'' carries various meanings such as uprising, resistance, or [[revolution]].<ref>{{Library citation\|link=Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club\|quote=They rose up in rebellion. It was called the war of chimurenga. Chimurenga is a Shona word. [...] The word "chimurenga" means rebellion, means rising, a resistance, a war of resistance from oppression.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|chapter=Preface\|quote=The word ‘Chimurenga’ has a number of meanings in current usage—revolution, war, struggle or resistance—and one of ZANU’s main slogans during the second Chimurenga war was ‘Pamberi ne Chimurenga’, meaning ‘forward with the struggle or the revolution’.}}</ref>

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	== Background ==		== Background ==
	=== First Chimurenga ===		=== First Chimurenga ===
	Zimbabwe's [[First Chimurenga]] refers to the Shona and [[Ndebele]] uprisings against [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\|British]] [[colonialism]] in the 1890s. The First Chimurenga would come to serve as a source of inspiration for Zimbabwe's later national liberation struggle against the settler-colonial regime of so-called "Rhodesia" throughout the 1960s and 70s.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Pamusoroi!\|title=The Second Chimurenga (ca. 1964)\|url=https://pamusoroi.com/today-in-history/the-second-chimurenga-ca-1964\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304082820/https://pamusoroi.com/today-in-history/the-second-chimurenga-ca-1964\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref> As ZANU leader Herbert Chitepo explained in 1973, "No doubt our old people then, our grandfathers in 1893, '94, '95, '96, '97, during those wars, fought gallantly with bows and arrows [...] and they were faced against muskets, they were faced against Maxim guns. And they were defeated. To that day our African people have never accepted that position. Quietly, sometimes, without words, they have continued to look upon that land as theirs, continued to prepare the day, for the day when they must wrest it back into their own control."<ref name=":1" />		Zimbabwe's [[First Chimurenga]] refers to the Shona and [[Ndebele]] uprisings against [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\|British]] [[colonialism]] in the 1890s. The First Chimurenga would come to serve as a source of inspiration for Zimbabwe's later national liberation struggle against the settler-colonial regime of so-called "Rhodesia" throughout the 1960s and 70s.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=Pamusoroi!\|title=The Second Chimurenga (ca. 1964)\|url=https://pamusoroi.com/today-in-history/the-second-chimurenga-ca-1964\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304082820/https://pamusoroi.com/today-in-history/the-second-chimurenga-ca-1964\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref> As ZANU leader [[Herbert Chitepo]] explained in 1973, "No doubt our old people then, our grandfathers in 1893, '94, '95, '96, '97, during those wars, fought gallantly with [[Bow and arrow\|bows and arrows]] [...] and they were faced against [[Musket\|muskets]], they were faced against [[Maxim gun\|Maxim guns]]. And they were defeated. To that day our African people have never accepted that position. Quietly, sometimes, without words, they have continued to look upon that land as theirs, continued to prepare the day, for the day when they must wrest it back into their own control."<ref name=":1" />

	=== International context ===		=== International context ===
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	== Events of the war ==		== Events of the war ==
	=== Beginning ===		=== Beginning ===
			[[File:Learning to use guns in ZANLA training camp in Mozambique.png\|alt=Two photos of people learning to use guns at a ZANLA training camp. Top photo: People kneel while handling guns as a trainer observes. Bottom photo: People seated in rows among trees handling guns.\|thumb\|People learning to use guns at a ZANLA military training camp in Mozambique.]]
	On April 28, 1966, in what is known as the battle of Chinhoyi,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Tichaona Zindoga\|newspaper=The Herald\|title=Chinhoyi Battle: The last man standing\|date=2015-04-29\|url=https://www.herald.co.zw/chinhoyi-battle-the-last-man-standing/}}</ref> a squad of seven guerrillas of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU, engaged in a twelve-hour battle with Rhodesian security forces which were backed by helicopter gunships, with the guerrillas eventually losing their lives in the battle. Although previous acts of resistance had occurred, the Chinhoyi battle is considered to be the first act of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe's liberation war.<ref name=":0" />		On April 28, 1966, in what is known as the battle of Chinhoyi,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Tichaona Zindoga\|newspaper=The Herald\|title=Chinhoyi Battle: The last man standing\|date=2015-04-29\|url=https://www.herald.co.zw/chinhoyi-battle-the-last-man-standing/}}</ref> a squad of seven guerrillas of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU, engaged in a twelve-hour battle with Rhodesian security forces which were backed by helicopter gunships, with the guerrillas eventually losing their lives in the battle. Although previous acts of resistance had occurred, the Chinhoyi battle is considered to be the first act of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe's liberation war.<ref name=":0" />

Verda.Majo: cleaning up some citation issues

2026-03-09T06:40:30Z

cleaning up some citation issues

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:40, 9 March 2026
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	== Events of the war ==		== Events of the war ==
	=== Beginning ===		=== Beginning ===
	On April 28, 1966, in what is known as the battle of Chinhoyi,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Tichaona Zindoga\|newspaper=The Herald\|title=Chinhoyi Battle: The last man standing\|date=2015-04-29\|url=https://www.herald.co.zw/chinhoyi-battle-the-last-man-standing/}}</ref> a squad of seven guerrillas of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU, engaged in a twelve-hour battle with Rhodesian security forces which were backed by helicopter gunships, with the guerrillas eventually losing their lives in the battle. Although previous acts of resistance had occurred, the Chinhoyi battle is considered to be the first act of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe's liberation war.<ref name=":9" />		On April 28, 1966, in what is known as the battle of Chinhoyi,<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Tichaona Zindoga\|newspaper=The Herald\|title=Chinhoyi Battle: The last man standing\|date=2015-04-29\|url=https://www.herald.co.zw/chinhoyi-battle-the-last-man-standing/}}</ref> a squad of seven guerrillas of the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), the military wing of ZANU, engaged in a twelve-hour battle with Rhodesian security forces which were backed by helicopter gunships, with the guerrillas eventually losing their lives in the battle. Although previous acts of resistance had occurred, the Chinhoyi battle is considered to be the first act of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe's liberation war.<ref name=":0" />

	Another early series of engagements occurred in 1967, known as the Wankie (or Hwange) Campaign, called "Operation Nickel" by the Rhodesian forces, in which an alliance of forces from ZAPU's Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and the [[uMkhonto weSizwe]] (MK) of South Africa's [[African National Congress\|ANC]] were attempting to move undetected from Zambia to South Africa by traveling the outskirts of Hwange Game Reserve, but they were eventually detected by Rhodesian forces and fought in a number of armed clashes.~~<ref name=":2" />~~<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=MK’s Luthuli Detachment and ZAPU in a joint operation\|date=2011-03-16\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304075845/https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref>		Another early series of engagements occurred in 1967, known as the Wankie (or Hwange) Campaign, called "Operation Nickel" by the Rhodesian forces, in which an alliance of forces from ZAPU's Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and the [[uMkhonto weSizwe]] (MK) of South Africa's [[African National Congress\|ANC]] were attempting to move undetected from Zambia to South Africa by traveling the outskirts of Hwange Game Reserve, but they were eventually detected by Rhodesian forces and fought in a number of armed clashes.<ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=MK’s Luthuli Detachment and ZAPU in a joint operation\|date=2011-03-16\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304075845/https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/mks-luthuli-detachment-and-zapu-joint-operation\|archive-date=2025-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{Web citation\|newspaper=About Zimbabwe, Official Government of Zimbabwe Web Portal\|title=History of Zimbabwe\|url=https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412191116/https://www.zim.gov.zw/index.php/en/my-government/government-ministries/about-zimbabwe/460-history-of-zimbabwe?showall=1\|archive-date=2024-04-12}}</ref>

	On December 4, 1971, two ZANLA guerrillas, Justin Chauke and Amon Zindoga, crossed into northeastern Zimbabwe near Mukumbura, coming over from Mozambique's Tete Province, with the mission to begin laying the groundwork for protracted guerrilla warfare.<ref name=":9" /><sup>:2</sup> A little over a year later, on December 21, 1972, a squad of nine ZANLA guerrillas attacked a settler-owned tobacco farm called Altena Farm, located in Mount Darwin in northeastern Zimbabwe.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":21">{{Web citation\|author=Ireen Mahamba\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=Battle of the north-eastern frontier…when ZANLA came home\|date=2019-06-27\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/battle-of-the-north-eastern-frontier-when-zanla-came-home/}}</ref> This was the first settler farm to be attacked since 1966. At the time the farm was in the hands of a settler named Marc de Borchgrave who was a leading tobacco farmer, known for his poor labor relations. De Borchgrave and one of his children were lightly wounded in the attack. One white Rhodesian soldier was killed by a landmine, while five others were injured.<ref name=":9" /><sup>:2</sup> An article in the news outlet The Patriot emphasizes that "A LOT of work had been going on behind the scenes before the opening of the north-eastern frontier of our war of liberation" and states that "by the time the first shots rang out at Altena Farm [...] everything was in place for ZANLA to operate from the north-eastern frontier" and analyzes this attack as "the precursor to other frontiers which would ultimately dismantle Rhodesian forces."<ref name=":21" /> The authors of ''The Struggle for Zimbabwe'' evaluate that "this attack marked the change from the sporadic, and the militarily ineffectual, actions of the Sixties, to protracted armed struggle."<ref name=":9" /><sup>xvii</sup>		On December 4, 1971, two ZANLA guerrillas, Justin Chauke and Amon Zindoga, crossed into northeastern Zimbabwe near Mukumbura, coming over from Mozambique's Tete Province, with the mission to begin laying the groundwork for protracted guerrilla warfare.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> A little over a year later, on December 21, 1972, a squad of nine ZANLA guerrillas attacked a settler-owned tobacco farm called Altena Farm, located in Mount Darwin in northeastern Zimbabwe.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":21">{{Web citation\|author=Ireen Mahamba\|newspaper=The Patriot\|title=Battle of the north-eastern frontier…when ZANLA came home\|date=2019-06-27\|url=https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/battle-of-the-north-eastern-frontier-when-zanla-came-home/}}</ref> This was the first settler farm to be attacked since 1966. At the time the farm was in the hands of a settler named Marc de Borchgrave who was a leading tobacco farmer, known for his poor labor relations. De Borchgrave and one of his children were lightly wounded in the attack. One white Rhodesian soldier was killed by a landmine, while five others were injured.<ref name=":0" /><sup>:2</sup> An article in the news outlet The Patriot emphasizes that "A LOT of work had been going on behind the scenes before the opening of the north-eastern frontier of our war of liberation" and states that "by the time the first shots rang out at Altena Farm [...] everything was in place for ZANLA to operate from the north-eastern frontier" and analyzes this attack as "the precursor to other frontiers which would ultimately dismantle Rhodesian forces."<ref name=":21" /> The authors of ''The Struggle for Zimbabwe'' evaluate that "this attack marked the change from the sporadic, and the militarily ineffectual, actions of the Sixties, to protracted armed struggle."<ref name=":0" /><sup>xvii</sup>

	== References ==		== References ==

← Older revision		Revision as of 07:29, 11 June 2026
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	The '''Second Chimurenga''' refers to the [[national liberation]] [[war]] against [[Settler colonialism\|settler-colonial]] rule that took place in [[Republic of Zimbabwe\|Zimbabwe]] from the mid-1960s until Zimbabwe's formal independence in 1980.<ref name=":0">{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|publisher=Faber and Faber}}</ref> The [[Shona]] word ''chimurenga'' carries various meanings such as uprising, resistance, or [[revolution]].<ref>{{Library citation\|link=Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club\|quote=They rose up in rebellion. It was called the war of chimurenga. Chimurenga is a Shona word. [...] The word "chimurenga" means rebellion, means rising, a resistance, a war of resistance from oppression.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|chapter=Preface\|quote=The word ‘Chimurenga’ has a number of meanings in current usage—revolution, war, struggle or resistance—and one of ZANU’s main slogans during the second Chimurenga war was ‘Pamberi ne Chimurenga’, meaning ‘forward with the struggle or the revolution’.}}</ref>		The '''Second Chimurenga''' refers to the [[national liberation]] [[war]] against [[Settler colonialism\|settler-colonial]] rule that took place in [[Republic of Zimbabwe\|Zimbabwe]] from the mid-1960s until Zimbabwe's formal independence in 1980.<ref name=":0">{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|publisher=Faber and Faber}}</ref> The [[Shona]] word ''chimurenga'' carries various meanings such as uprising, resistance, or [[revolution]].<ref>{{Library citation\|link=Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club\|quote=They rose up in rebellion. It was called the war of chimurenga. Chimurenga is a Shona word. [...] The word "chimurenga" means rebellion, means rising, a resistance, a war of resistance from oppression.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|author=David Martin and Phyllis Johnson\|year=1981\|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe: The Chimurenga War\|title-url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/\|chapter=Preface\|quote=The word ‘Chimurenga’ has a number of meanings in current usage—revolution, war, struggle or resistance—and one of ZANU’s main slogans during the second Chimurenga war was ‘Pamberi ne Chimurenga’, meaning ‘forward with the struggle or the revolution’.}}</ref>

	Major participants of the war included Zimbabwean national liberation organizations, primarily [[Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front\|Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU) and [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) and their respective military wings, [[ZANLA]] and [[ZIPRA]], against the forces of the settler-colonial "Rhodesian" regime, at that time led by the [[Ian Smith]] administration which had unilaterally declared independence from [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\|Britain]] in 1965.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Herbert Chitepo\|title=Herbert Chitepo at the National Press Club (ca. 1973)\|date=1973\|url=https://en.prolewiki.org/wiki/Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club}}</ref>		Major participants of the war included Zimbabwean national liberation organizations, primarily [[Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front\|Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU) and [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) and their respective military wings, [[ZANLA]] and [[ZIPRA]], against the forces of the settler-colonial "[[Rhodesian]]" regime, at that time led by the [[Ian Smith]] administration which had unilaterally declared independence from [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland\|Britain]] in 1965.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Web citation\|author=Herbert Chitepo\|title=Herbert Chitepo at the National Press Club (ca. 1973)\|date=1973\|url=https://en.prolewiki.org/wiki/Library:Herbert_Chitepo_at_the_National_Press_Club}}</ref>

	The Battle of Chinhoyi in 1966 is often regarded as the opening battle of the Second Chimurenga.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Zimbabwe achieved independence in 1980, although the struggle against [[imperialism]], [[neocolonialism]], and against the effects and remnants of settler colonial rule and land dispossession have continued.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Mafa Kwanisai Mafa\|newspaper=Modern Ghana\|title=From Colonial Chains to Neo-Colonial Shackles: Zimbabwe’s Century-Long Struggle for Liberation\|date=2025-04-03\|url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1390616/from-colonial-chains-to-neo-colonial-shackles.html\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260309053022/https://www.modernghana.com/news/1390616/from-colonial-chains-to-neo-colonial-shackles.html\|archive-date=2026-03-09}}</ref>		The Battle of Chinhoyi in 1966 is often regarded as the opening battle of the Second Chimurenga.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Zimbabwe achieved independence in 1980, although the struggle against [[imperialism]], [[neocolonialism]], and against the effects and remnants of settler colonial rule and land dispossession have continued.<ref>{{Web citation\|author=Mafa Kwanisai Mafa\|newspaper=Modern Ghana\|title=From Colonial Chains to Neo-Colonial Shackles: Zimbabwe’s Century-Long Struggle for Liberation\|date=2025-04-03\|url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1390616/from-colonial-chains-to-neo-colonial-shackles.html\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260309053022/https://www.modernghana.com/news/1390616/from-colonial-chains-to-neo-colonial-shackles.html\|archive-date=2026-03-09}}</ref>