Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) - Revision history

78.208.16.175: added a source of a fascist speech which shows how private property was explicitly protected in the "socialization" period (and how "socialization" was simply syindacalist bs)

2026-01-13T09:11:25Z

added a source of a fascist speech which shows how private property was explicitly protected in the "socialization" period (and how "socialization" was simply syindacalist bs)

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:11, 13 January 2026
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	In the draft constitution for the Italian Social Republic<ref>[https://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Italia,_Repubblica_Sociale_-_Progetto_di_Costituzione Progetto di Costituzione]</ref>, a parliament was also planned, the members of which would represent the respective syndicates (e.g. the syndicate of steel workers, craftsmen, artisans, farmers, etc.) and these syndicates would fill parliament instead of parties. Social groups such as mothers, veterans, the youth (through the youth organization of the fascist republican party) or people hindered by the war would have been allowed to vote for their respective representative groups in parliament. Mussolini hoped to regain the confidence of the working classes with these laws. The socialization laws were partially implemented. The actual expropriation also took place, e.g. B. the expropriation of FIAT.<ref>[https://digilander.libero.it/rsi_analisi/9.htm Socializzazione della “Fiat” Società per azioni con sede in Torino</ref> However, due to the war, socialization in the Social Republic was not implemented too intensely and after the war the efforts to socialize the economy were no longer taken into account by the new Italian republic.		In the draft constitution for the Italian Social Republic<ref>[https://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Italia,_Repubblica_Sociale_-_Progetto_di_Costituzione Progetto di Costituzione]</ref>, a parliament was also planned, the members of which would represent the respective syndicates (e.g. the syndicate of steel workers, craftsmen, artisans, farmers, etc.) and these syndicates would fill parliament instead of parties. Social groups such as mothers, veterans, the youth (through the youth organization of the fascist republican party) or people hindered by the war would have been allowed to vote for their respective representative groups in parliament. Mussolini hoped to regain the confidence of the working classes with these laws. The socialization laws were partially implemented. The actual expropriation also took place, e.g. B. the expropriation of FIAT.<ref>[https://digilander.libero.it/rsi_analisi/9.htm Socializzazione della “Fiat” Società per azioni con sede in Torino</ref> However, due to the war, socialization in the Social Republic was not implemented too intensely and after the war the efforts to socialize the economy were no longer taken into account by the new Italian republic.

	In the end socialization was yet another way to satisfy the working class of the Republic of Salò via social-democratic means just enough to not let them overthrow the capitalist production relations; private property was still protected and considered fundamental, as stated many times in the constitution of the Nazi puppet state.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Benito Mussolini\|year=1943\|title=costituzione della Repubblica Sociale Italiana\|title-url=https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:Draft_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic\|trans-lang=Italian}}</ref>		In the end socialization was yet another way to satisfy the working class of the Republic of Salò via social-democratic means just enough to not let them overthrow the capitalist production relations; private property was still protected and considered fundamental<ref>{{Citation\|last=Pavolini\|first=Alessandro\|title=Verona Congress\|title-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426060927/http://larchivio.com/xoom/pavolinidiscorso.htm\|quote=In social matters, it is clear that fascist socialism cannot be Marxist socialism, that is, the socialism that sees only manual labor and demagogically neglects technical and intellectual labor, which, from a purely human point of view, is a necessary and indispensable value like any other; from the perspective of corporate hierarchy, it is something superior to the other, not in terms of social origin, but as an expression and individual contribution to collective labor. Our socialism cannot be a communist socialism, Russian-style, in the sense that the idea of an absurd total nationalization of all economic activities, including artisanal activities, all rural activities, and all professional activities, as practiced in Russia, is contrary to our spirit. Ours must be a trade union socialism that achieves a decisive step forward on the path of social justice, without denying anything of what had already been accomplished in the path of social progress during the twenty years of the Fascist regime.

			As regards that private property which is, as I was saying before, a projection of the human personality and which we want to guarantee and protect, the property which arises from individual work, from individual savings, it is clear that the core of this healthy property is the home, which everyone must own.}}</ref>, as stated many times in the constitution of the Nazi puppet state.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Benito Mussolini\|year=1943\|title=costituzione della Repubblica Sociale Italiana\|title-url=https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:Draft_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic\|trans-lang=Italian}}</ref>

	===Social policies===		===Social policies===

37.162.184.109: social democracy and keynesianism ain't modes of production

2025-12-11T17:52:50Z

social democracy and keynesianism ain't modes of production

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:52, 11 December 2025
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	{{Infobox country\|name=Kingdom of Italy\|native_name=Regno d'Italia\|image_flag=Kingdom of Italy flag.png\|image_coat=Fascist Italy coast of arms.png\|capital=[[Rome]]\|mode_of_production=[[Imperialist ~~Capitalism~~]] [[~~Social democracy]] [[War Keynesism~~]]\|government_type=Unitary parliamentary monarchy (1861–1922)<br>Unitary [[bourgeois democracy]] under [[fascist]] influence (1922–1925)<br>Unitary fascist state (1925–1943)\|leader_title1=Monarch\|leader_name1=Victor Emmanuel III\|leader_title2=Duce\|leader_name2=[[Benito Mussolini]]\|life_span=1861–1946\|image_flag2=NFP flag.png\|flag_caption=Flags of Italy and the [[National Fascist Party]]\|motto=Credere, obbedire, combattere<br>(Motto of the [[National Fascist Party]])\|image_map=Kingdom of Italy map.png\|religion=Roman Catholicism\|legislature=Parliament\|established_event2=[[March on Rome]]\|established_date2=31 October 1922\|established_event3=Second Italo-Abyssinian War\|established_date3=1935-1936\|established_event4=Conquest of Albania\|established_date4=April 7–12, 1939\|established_event5=Intervention into the [[Second World War]]\|established_date5=10 June 1940\|established_event6=Deposition of Mussolini\|established_date6=25 July 1943\|area_km2=3,798,000\|population_estimate=42,993,602\|population_estimate_year=1936\|currency=Italian Lira}}		{{Infobox country\|name=Kingdom of Italy\|native_name=Regno d'Italia\|image_flag=Kingdom of Italy flag.png\|image_coat=Fascist Italy coast of arms.png\|capital=[[Rome]]\|mode_of_production=[[Imperialist]] [[Capitalism]]\|government_type=Unitary parliamentary monarchy (1861–1922)<br>Unitary [[bourgeois democracy]] under [[fascist]] influence (1922–1925)<br>Unitary fascist state (1925–1943)\|leader_title1=Monarch\|leader_name1=Victor Emmanuel III\|leader_title2=Duce\|leader_name2=[[Benito Mussolini]]\|life_span=1861–1946\|image_flag2=NFP flag.png\|flag_caption=Flags of Italy and the [[National Fascist Party]]\|motto=Credere, obbedire, combattere<br>(Motto of the [[National Fascist Party]])\|image_map=Kingdom of Italy map.png\|religion=Roman Catholicism\|legislature=Parliament\|established_event2=[[March on Rome]]\|established_date2=31 October 1922\|established_event3=Second Italo-Abyssinian War\|established_date3=1935-1936\|established_event4=Conquest of Albania\|established_date4=April 7–12, 1939\|established_event5=Intervention into the [[Second World War]]\|established_date5=10 June 1940\|established_event6=Deposition of Mussolini\|established_date6=25 July 1943\|area_km2=3,798,000\|population_estimate=42,993,602\|population_estimate_year=1936\|currency=Italian Lira}}

	The '''Kingdom of Italy''' was a state in southern Europe. From the [[March on Rome]] in 1922 until 1943, it was under the rule of the first [[fascist]] state in history, in a historical period commonly known as '''Fascist Italy'''. While in the years from 1922–1925, the régime still maintained a [[Liberalism\|liberal]] façade, after 1925, it soon fully formed into a militantly [[Anti-communism\|anti-communist]] dictatorship headed by [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=Swansea University\|title=What was the impact of Fascist rule upon Italy from 1922 to 1945?\|url=https://www.swansea.ac.uk/history/history-study-guides/what-was-the-impact-of-fascist-rule-upon-italy-from-1922-to-1945/\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=Mussolini’s appointment as prime minister in October 1922 did not see the immediate institution of dictatorial rule. Characteristic of the means the Fascists had employed to come to power, Blackshirt squad violence helped to reduce the influence of parliamentary opposition without outlawing it altogether. From the start of 1925, a fascist parliamentary majority (elected in April 1924 partly thanks to fascist intimidation) was able to pass a series of laws which dismantled the institutions of liberal democracy. Denoting a decline in squad power, the regular police forces together with the OVRA secret police (created in 1927) were now entrusted with the task of rooting out political opposition and controlling the population, with the assistance of Fascist Party organizations (including the Militia).}}</ref>		The '''Kingdom of Italy''' was a state in southern Europe. From the [[March on Rome]] in 1922 until 1943, it was under the rule of the first [[fascist]] state in history, in a historical period commonly known as '''Fascist Italy'''. While in the years from 1922–1925, the régime still maintained a [[Liberalism\|liberal]] façade, after 1925, it soon fully formed into a militantly [[Anti-communism\|anti-communist]] dictatorship headed by [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=Swansea University\|title=What was the impact of Fascist rule upon Italy from 1922 to 1945?\|url=https://www.swansea.ac.uk/history/history-study-guides/what-was-the-impact-of-fascist-rule-upon-italy-from-1922-to-1945/\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=Mussolini’s appointment as prime minister in October 1922 did not see the immediate institution of dictatorial rule. Characteristic of the means the Fascists had employed to come to power, Blackshirt squad violence helped to reduce the influence of parliamentary opposition without outlawing it altogether. From the start of 1925, a fascist parliamentary majority (elected in April 1924 partly thanks to fascist intimidation) was able to pass a series of laws which dismantled the institutions of liberal democracy. Denoting a decline in squad power, the regular police forces together with the OVRA secret police (created in 1927) were now entrusted with the task of rooting out political opposition and controlling the population, with the assistance of Fascist Party organizations (including the Militia).}}</ref>

78.210.65.170: demonstrated how the socialization in the republic of Salò (nazi puppet state in Italy) was not the same as collectivization in socialist countries and private property was still protected

2025-08-31T14:06:17Z

demonstrated how the socialization in the republic of Salò (nazi puppet state in Italy) was not the same as collectivization in socialist countries and private property was still protected

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:06, 31 August 2025
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	Shortly after his dismissal by the Fascist Grand Council, Mussolini was arrested and later freed by German troops. Later, parts of the Wehrmacht, SS and fascist militias (later called the Black Brigades) constructed the Italian Social Republic.<ref name="Falanga, 2008, p. 229">{{citation\|title=Mussolinis Vorposten in Hitlers Reich. Italiens Politik in Berlin 1933–1945\|year=2008\|author=Gianluca Falanga\|publisher=Links Christoph Verlag\|page=229}}</ref> The social republic again represented a phase in which the original radicalism of fascism was ''reawakened''. This was followed by the Verona Congress in Italy, in which, among other things, the ''socialization of the economy'' was established. The Socialization law<ref>[Decreto Legislativo del Duce 12 febbraio 1944, n. 375]</ref> included the expropriation of large enterprises which employ equity of more than one million lire or over a hundred workers. All state-owned corporations were also included in the socialization process. The law also regulated the secret election of employee representatives, who were elected by the employees, manufacturers, technicians and administrative employees. Only employees who are over 25 years old and have been employed in the company for five years would have been eligible to vote.		Shortly after his dismissal by the Fascist Grand Council, Mussolini was arrested and later freed by German troops. Later, parts of the Wehrmacht, SS and fascist militias (later called the Black Brigades) constructed the Italian Social Republic.<ref name="Falanga, 2008, p. 229">{{citation\|title=Mussolinis Vorposten in Hitlers Reich. Italiens Politik in Berlin 1933–1945\|year=2008\|author=Gianluca Falanga\|publisher=Links Christoph Verlag\|page=229}}</ref> The social republic again represented a phase in which the original radicalism of fascism was ''reawakened''. This was followed by the Verona Congress in Italy, in which, among other things, the ''socialization of the economy'' was established. The Socialization law<ref>[Decreto Legislativo del Duce 12 febbraio 1944, n. 375]</ref> included the expropriation of large enterprises which employ equity of more than one million lire or over a hundred workers. All state-owned corporations were also included in the socialization process. The law also regulated the secret election of employee representatives, who were elected by the employees, manufacturers, technicians and administrative employees. Only employees who are over 25 years old and have been employed in the company for five years would have been eligible to vote.
	In the draft constitution for the Italian Social Republic<ref>[https://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Italia,_Repubblica_Sociale_-_Progetto_di_Costituzione Progetto di Costituzione]</ref>, a parliament was also planned, the members of which would represent the respective syndicates (e.g. the syndicate of steel workers, craftsmen, artisans, farmers, etc.) and these syndicates would fill parliament instead of parties. Social groups such as mothers, veterans, the youth (through the youth organization of the fascist republican party) or people hindered by the war would have been allowed to vote for their respective representative groups in parliament. Mussolini hoped to regain the confidence of the working classes with these laws. The socialization laws were partially implemented. The actual expropriation also took place, e.g. B. the expropriation of FIAT.<ref>[https://digilander.libero.it/rsi_analisi/9.htm Socializzazione della “Fiat” Società per azioni con sede in Torino</ref> However, due to the war, socialization in the Social Republic was not implemented too intensely and after the war the efforts to socialize the economy were no longer taken into account by the new Italian republic.		In the draft constitution for the Italian Social Republic<ref>[https://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Italia,_Repubblica_Sociale_-_Progetto_di_Costituzione Progetto di Costituzione]</ref>, a parliament was also planned, the members of which would represent the respective syndicates (e.g. the syndicate of steel workers, craftsmen, artisans, farmers, etc.) and these syndicates would fill parliament instead of parties. Social groups such as mothers, veterans, the youth (through the youth organization of the fascist republican party) or people hindered by the war would have been allowed to vote for their respective representative groups in parliament. Mussolini hoped to regain the confidence of the working classes with these laws. The socialization laws were partially implemented. The actual expropriation also took place, e.g. B. the expropriation of FIAT.<ref>[https://digilander.libero.it/rsi_analisi/9.htm Socializzazione della “Fiat” Società per azioni con sede in Torino</ref> However, due to the war, socialization in the Social Republic was not implemented too intensely and after the war the efforts to socialize the economy were no longer taken into account by the new Italian republic.

			In the end socialization was yet another way to satisfy the working class of the Republic of Salò via social-democratic means just enough to not let them overthrow the capitalist production relations; private property was still protected and considered fundamental, as stated many times in the constitution of the Nazi puppet state.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Benito Mussolini\|year=1943\|title=costituzione della Repubblica Sociale Italiana\|title-url=https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:Draft_of_the_Constitution_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic\|trans-lang=Italian}}</ref>

	===Social policies===		===Social policies===

93.69.50.28: the description of the mode of production as just "Capitalism (decaying)" seemed too vague for me so I tried to make it more specific

2025-08-26T09:38:47Z

the description of the mode of production as just "Capitalism (decaying)" seemed too vague for me so I tried to make it more specific

← Older revision		Revision as of 09:38, 26 August 2025
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	{{Infobox country\|name=Kingdom of Italy\|native_name=Regno d'Italia\|image_flag=Kingdom of Italy flag.png\|image_coat=Fascist Italy coast of arms.png\|capital=[[Rome]]\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]] ~~(decaying)~~\|government_type=Unitary parliamentary monarchy (1861–1922)<br>Unitary [[bourgeois democracy]] under [[fascist]] influence (1922–1925)<br>Unitary fascist state (1925–1943)\|leader_title1=Monarch\|leader_name1=Victor Emmanuel III\|leader_title2=Duce\|leader_name2=[[Benito Mussolini]]\|life_span=1861–1946\|image_flag2=NFP flag.png\|flag_caption=Flags of Italy and the [[National Fascist Party]]\|motto=Credere, obbedire, combattere<br>(Motto of the [[National Fascist Party]])\|image_map=Kingdom of Italy map.png\|religion=Roman Catholicism\|legislature=Parliament\|established_event2=[[March on Rome]]\|established_date2=31 October 1922\|established_event3=Second Italo-Abyssinian War\|established_date3=1935-1936\|established_event4=Conquest of Albania\|established_date4=April 7–12, 1939\|established_event5=Intervention into the [[Second World War]]\|established_date5=10 June 1940\|established_event6=Deposition of Mussolini\|established_date6=25 July 1943\|area_km2=3,798,000\|population_estimate=42,993,602\|population_estimate_year=1936\|currency=Italian Lira}}		{{Infobox country\|name=Kingdom of Italy\|native_name=Regno d'Italia\|image_flag=Kingdom of Italy flag.png\|image_coat=Fascist Italy coast of arms.png\|capital=[[Rome]]\|mode_of_production=[[Imperialist Capitalism]] [[Social democracy]] [[War Keynesism]]\|government_type=Unitary parliamentary monarchy (1861–1922)<br>Unitary [[bourgeois democracy]] under [[fascist]] influence (1922–1925)<br>Unitary fascist state (1925–1943)\|leader_title1=Monarch\|leader_name1=Victor Emmanuel III\|leader_title2=Duce\|leader_name2=[[Benito Mussolini]]\|life_span=1861–1946\|image_flag2=NFP flag.png\|flag_caption=Flags of Italy and the [[National Fascist Party]]\|motto=Credere, obbedire, combattere<br>(Motto of the [[National Fascist Party]])\|image_map=Kingdom of Italy map.png\|religion=Roman Catholicism\|legislature=Parliament\|established_event2=[[March on Rome]]\|established_date2=31 October 1922\|established_event3=Second Italo-Abyssinian War\|established_date3=1935-1936\|established_event4=Conquest of Albania\|established_date4=April 7–12, 1939\|established_event5=Intervention into the [[Second World War]]\|established_date5=10 June 1940\|established_event6=Deposition of Mussolini\|established_date6=25 July 1943\|area_km2=3,798,000\|population_estimate=42,993,602\|population_estimate_year=1936\|currency=Italian Lira}}

	The '''Kingdom of Italy''' was a state in southern Europe. From the [[March on Rome]] in 1922 until 1943, it was under the rule of the first [[fascist]] state in history, in a historical period commonly known as '''Fascist Italy'''. While in the years from 1922–1925, the régime still maintained a [[Liberalism\|liberal]] façade, after 1925, it soon fully formed into a militantly [[Anti-communism\|anti-communist]] dictatorship headed by [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=Swansea University\|title=What was the impact of Fascist rule upon Italy from 1922 to 1945?\|url=https://www.swansea.ac.uk/history/history-study-guides/what-was-the-impact-of-fascist-rule-upon-italy-from-1922-to-1945/\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=Mussolini’s appointment as prime minister in October 1922 did not see the immediate institution of dictatorial rule. Characteristic of the means the Fascists had employed to come to power, Blackshirt squad violence helped to reduce the influence of parliamentary opposition without outlawing it altogether. From the start of 1925, a fascist parliamentary majority (elected in April 1924 partly thanks to fascist intimidation) was able to pass a series of laws which dismantled the institutions of liberal democracy. Denoting a decline in squad power, the regular police forces together with the OVRA secret police (created in 1927) were now entrusted with the task of rooting out political opposition and controlling the population, with the assistance of Fascist Party organizations (including the Militia).}}</ref>		The '''Kingdom of Italy''' was a state in southern Europe. From the [[March on Rome]] in 1922 until 1943, it was under the rule of the first [[fascist]] state in history, in a historical period commonly known as '''Fascist Italy'''. While in the years from 1922–1925, the régime still maintained a [[Liberalism\|liberal]] façade, after 1925, it soon fully formed into a militantly [[Anti-communism\|anti-communist]] dictatorship headed by [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=Swansea University\|title=What was the impact of Fascist rule upon Italy from 1922 to 1945?\|url=https://www.swansea.ac.uk/history/history-study-guides/what-was-the-impact-of-fascist-rule-upon-italy-from-1922-to-1945/\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=Mussolini’s appointment as prime minister in October 1922 did not see the immediate institution of dictatorial rule. Characteristic of the means the Fascists had employed to come to power, Blackshirt squad violence helped to reduce the influence of parliamentary opposition without outlawing it altogether. From the start of 1925, a fascist parliamentary majority (elected in April 1924 partly thanks to fascist intimidation) was able to pass a series of laws which dismantled the institutions of liberal democracy. Denoting a decline in squad power, the regular police forces together with the OVRA secret police (created in 1927) were now entrusted with the task of rooting out political opposition and controlling the population, with the assistance of Fascist Party organizations (including the Militia).}}</ref>

ComradeSyntrofos: Fixed typo

2024-01-08T17:16:06Z

Fixed typo

← Older revision		Revision as of 17:16, 8 January 2024
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	Under the [[reactionary]] and despotic government, [[Communist party\|socialist and communist organizations]], [[Trade union\|trade unions]], and other organs of the [[working class]] saw massive repression and deprivation, with the economy being organized in accordance to the betterment of the [[Bourgeoisie\|wealthy]], at the large expense of the workers. The Fascist régime also implemented the first modern privatization programs, as well as the mass cutting of social programs, in history.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Germa Bel\|year=2011\|title=The first privatisation: selling SOEs and privatising public monopolies in Fascist Italy (1922–1925)\|title-url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-abstract/35/5/937/1695860\|quote=Italy's first Fascist government applied a large-scale privatisation policy between 1922 and 1925. The government privatised the State monopoly of match sale, eliminated the State monopoly on life insurances, sold most of the State-owned telephone networks and services to private firms, reprivatised the largest metal machinery producer, and awarded concessions to private firms to build and operate motorways. These interventions represent one of the earliest and most decisive privatisation episodes in the Western world. While ideological considerations may have had a certain influence, privatisation was used mainly as a political tool to build confidence among industrialists and to increase support for the government and the Partito Nazionale Fascista. Privatisation also contributed to balancing the budget, which was the core objective of Fascist economic policy in its first phase.\|publisher=Cambridge Journal of Economics\|doi=https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/beq051\|volume=35\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> Fascist Italy occupied [[Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974)\|Ethiopia]] in addition to its earlier colonies of [[Somalia]] and [[Eritrea]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Stephen Gowans\|year=2018\|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom\|chapter=Imperialism\|page=58–59\|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf\|city=Montreal\|publisher=Baraka Books\|isbn=9781771861427\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref>		Under the [[reactionary]] and despotic government, [[Communist party\|socialist and communist organizations]], [[Trade union\|trade unions]], and other organs of the [[working class]] saw massive repression and deprivation, with the economy being organized in accordance to the betterment of the [[Bourgeoisie\|wealthy]], at the large expense of the workers. The Fascist régime also implemented the first modern privatization programs, as well as the mass cutting of social programs, in history.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Germa Bel\|year=2011\|title=The first privatisation: selling SOEs and privatising public monopolies in Fascist Italy (1922–1925)\|title-url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-abstract/35/5/937/1695860\|quote=Italy's first Fascist government applied a large-scale privatisation policy between 1922 and 1925. The government privatised the State monopoly of match sale, eliminated the State monopoly on life insurances, sold most of the State-owned telephone networks and services to private firms, reprivatised the largest metal machinery producer, and awarded concessions to private firms to build and operate motorways. These interventions represent one of the earliest and most decisive privatisation episodes in the Western world. While ideological considerations may have had a certain influence, privatisation was used mainly as a political tool to build confidence among industrialists and to increase support for the government and the Partito Nazionale Fascista. Privatisation also contributed to balancing the budget, which was the core objective of Fascist economic policy in its first phase.\|publisher=Cambridge Journal of Economics\|doi=https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/beq051\|volume=35\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> Fascist Italy occupied [[Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974)\|Ethiopia]] in addition to its earlier colonies of [[Somalia]] and [[Eritrea]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Stephen Gowans\|year=2018\|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom\|chapter=Imperialism\|page=58–59\|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf\|city=Montreal\|publisher=Baraka Books\|isbn=9781771861427\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref>

	Fascist Italy allied itself with another [[Far-right politics\|extreme right]] [[capitalist]] ~~régime~~, the [[German Reich (1933–1945)\|German Reich]], and joined into the [[Second World War]] after Italian forces invaded the [[French Republic]], during the final days of the main German invasion of that nation. From 1940 to mid-1943 Fascist Italy was the primary Axis power in both Africa and the Balkans.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Simon Gonsalves\|title=The Italian Army in the Second World War: A Historiographical Analysis\|title-url=https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/gljuh/vol5/iss1/2\|date=10-9-2017}}</ref> While seeing some territorial gains in Southern Europe in the initial part of the war, Fascist Italy would eventually prove itself to be an inadequate military force, particularly in regards to the military events in [[Africa]] and [[Sicily]].		Fascist Italy allied itself with another [[Far-right politics\|extreme right]] [[capitalist]] regime, the [[German Reich (1933–1945)\|German Reich]], and joined into the [[Second World War]] after Italian forces invaded the [[French Republic]], during the final days of the main German invasion of that nation. From 1940 to mid-1943 Fascist Italy was the primary Axis power in both Africa and the Balkans.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Simon Gonsalves\|title=The Italian Army in the Second World War: A Historiographical Analysis\|title-url=https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/gljuh/vol5/iss1/2\|date=10-9-2017}}</ref> While seeing some territorial gains in Southern Europe in the initial part of the war, Fascist Italy would eventually prove itself to be an inadequate military force, particularly in regards to the military events in [[Africa]] and [[Sicily]].

	By 1943, after the [[World War II\|Allies]] had invaded mainland Italy, the long-time dictator, Benito Mussolini, was removed from power after a soft-coup. However, the Third Reich later returned him to power to lead a puppet state, known as the [[Italian Social Republic]].		By 1943, after the [[World War II\|Allies]] had invaded mainland Italy, the long-time dictator, Benito Mussolini, was removed from power after a soft-coup. However, the Third Reich later returned him to power to lead a puppet state, known as the [[Italian Social Republic]].

Anarcho-Bolshevik: From 1940 to mid-1943 Fascist Italy was the primary Axis power in both Africa and the Balkans.

2023-06-11T12:57:18Z

From 1940 to mid-1943 Fascist Italy was the primary Axis power in both Africa and the Balkans.

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	{{Infobox country\|name=Kingdom of Italy\|native_name=Regno d'Italia\|image_flag=Kingdom of Italy flag.png\|image_coat=Fascist Italy coast of arms.png\|capital=[[Rome]]\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]] (decaying)\|government_type=Unitary parliamentary monarchy (1861–1922)<br>Unitary [[bourgeois democracy]] under [[fascist]] influence (1922–1925)<br>Unitary fascist state (1925–1943)\|leader_title1=Monarch\|leader_name1=Victor Emmanuel III\|leader_title2=Duce\|leader_name2=[[Benito Mussolini]]\|life_span=~~1861–1943~~\|image_flag2=NFP flag.png\|flag_caption=Flags of Italy and the [[National Fascist Party]]\|motto=Credere, obbedire, combattere<br>(Motto of the [[National Fascist Party]])\|image_map=Kingdom of Italy map.png\|religion=Roman Catholicism\|legislature=Parliament\|established_event2=[[March on Rome]]\|established_date2=31 October 1922\|established_event3=Second Italo-Abyssinian War\|established_date3=1935-1936\|established_event4=Conquest of Albania\|established_date4=April 7–12, 1939\|established_event5=Intervention into the [[Second World War]]\|established_date5=10 June 1940\|established_event6=Deposition of Mussolini\|established_date6=25 July 1943\|area_km2=3,798,000\|population_estimate=42,993,602\|population_estimate_year=1936\|currency=Italian Lira}}		{{Infobox country\|name=Kingdom of Italy\|native_name=Regno d'Italia\|image_flag=Kingdom of Italy flag.png\|image_coat=Fascist Italy coast of arms.png\|capital=[[Rome]]\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]] (decaying)\|government_type=Unitary parliamentary monarchy (1861–1922)<br>Unitary [[bourgeois democracy]] under [[fascist]] influence (1922–1925)<br>Unitary fascist state (1925–1943)\|leader_title1=Monarch\|leader_name1=Victor Emmanuel III\|leader_title2=Duce\|leader_name2=[[Benito Mussolini]]\|life_span=1861–1946\|image_flag2=NFP flag.png\|flag_caption=Flags of Italy and the [[National Fascist Party]]\|motto=Credere, obbedire, combattere<br>(Motto of the [[National Fascist Party]])\|image_map=Kingdom of Italy map.png\|religion=Roman Catholicism\|legislature=Parliament\|established_event2=[[March on Rome]]\|established_date2=31 October 1922\|established_event3=Second Italo-Abyssinian War\|established_date3=1935-1936\|established_event4=Conquest of Albania\|established_date4=April 7–12, 1939\|established_event5=Intervention into the [[Second World War]]\|established_date5=10 June 1940\|established_event6=Deposition of Mussolini\|established_date6=25 July 1943\|area_km2=3,798,000\|population_estimate=42,993,602\|population_estimate_year=1936\|currency=Italian Lira}}

	The '''Kingdom of Italy''' was a state in southern Europe. From the [[March on Rome]] in 1922 until 1943, it was under the rule of the first [[fascist]] state in history, in a historical period commonly known as '''Fascist Italy'''. While in the years from 1922–1925, the ~~regime~~ still maintained a [[Liberalism\|liberal]] façade, after 1925, it soon fully formed into a militantly [[Anti-communism\|anti-communist]] dictatorship headed by [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=Swansea University\|title=What was the impact of Fascist rule upon Italy from 1922 to 1945?\|url=https://www.swansea.ac.uk/history/history-study-guides/what-was-the-impact-of-fascist-rule-upon-italy-from-1922-to-1945/\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=Mussolini’s appointment as prime minister in October 1922 did not see the immediate institution of dictatorial rule. Characteristic of the means the Fascists had employed to come to power, Blackshirt squad violence helped to reduce the influence of parliamentary opposition without outlawing it altogether. From the start of 1925, a fascist parliamentary majority (elected in April 1924 partly thanks to fascist intimidation) was able to pass a series of laws which dismantled the institutions of liberal democracy. Denoting a decline in squad power, the regular police forces together with the OVRA secret police (created in 1927) were now entrusted with the task of rooting out political opposition and controlling the population, with the assistance of Fascist Party organizations (including the Militia).}}</ref>		The '''Kingdom of Italy''' was a state in southern Europe. From the [[March on Rome]] in 1922 until 1943, it was under the rule of the first [[fascist]] state in history, in a historical period commonly known as '''Fascist Italy'''. While in the years from 1922–1925, the régime still maintained a [[Liberalism\|liberal]] façade, after 1925, it soon fully formed into a militantly [[Anti-communism\|anti-communist]] dictatorship headed by [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=Swansea University\|title=What was the impact of Fascist rule upon Italy from 1922 to 1945?\|url=https://www.swansea.ac.uk/history/history-study-guides/what-was-the-impact-of-fascist-rule-upon-italy-from-1922-to-1945/\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=Mussolini’s appointment as prime minister in October 1922 did not see the immediate institution of dictatorial rule. Characteristic of the means the Fascists had employed to come to power, Blackshirt squad violence helped to reduce the influence of parliamentary opposition without outlawing it altogether. From the start of 1925, a fascist parliamentary majority (elected in April 1924 partly thanks to fascist intimidation) was able to pass a series of laws which dismantled the institutions of liberal democracy. Denoting a decline in squad power, the regular police forces together with the OVRA secret police (created in 1927) were now entrusted with the task of rooting out political opposition and controlling the population, with the assistance of Fascist Party organizations (including the Militia).}}</ref>

	Under the [[reactionary]] and despotic government, [[Communist party\|socialist and communist organizations]], [[Trade union\|trade unions]], and other organs of the [[working class]] saw massive repression and deprivation, with the economy being organized in accordance to the betterment of the [[Bourgeoisie\|wealthy]], at the large expense of the workers. The ~~fascist regime~~ also implemented the first modern privatization programs, as well as the mass cutting of social programs, in history.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Germa Bel\|year=2011\|title=The first privatisation: selling SOEs and privatising public monopolies in Fascist Italy (1922–1925)\|title-url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-abstract/35/5/937/1695860\|quote=Italy's first Fascist government applied a large-scale privatisation policy between 1922 and 1925. The government privatised the State monopoly of match sale, eliminated the State monopoly on life insurances, sold most of the State-owned telephone networks and services to private firms, reprivatised the largest metal machinery producer, and awarded concessions to private firms to build and operate motorways. These interventions represent one of the earliest and most decisive privatisation episodes in the Western world. While ideological considerations may have had a certain influence, privatisation was used mainly as a political tool to build confidence among industrialists and to increase support for the government and the Partito Nazionale Fascista. Privatisation also contributed to balancing the budget, which was the core objective of Fascist economic policy in its first phase.\|publisher=Cambridge Journal of Economics\|doi=https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/beq051\|volume=35\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> Fascist Italy occupied [[Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974)\|Ethiopia]] in addition to its earlier colonies of [[Somalia]] and [[Eritrea]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Stephen Gowans\|year=2018\|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom\|chapter=Imperialism\|page=58–59\|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf\|city=Montreal\|publisher=Baraka Books\|isbn=9781771861427\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref>		Under the [[reactionary]] and despotic government, [[Communist party\|socialist and communist organizations]], [[Trade union\|trade unions]], and other organs of the [[working class]] saw massive repression and deprivation, with the economy being organized in accordance to the betterment of the [[Bourgeoisie\|wealthy]], at the large expense of the workers. The Fascist régime also implemented the first modern privatization programs, as well as the mass cutting of social programs, in history.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Germa Bel\|year=2011\|title=The first privatisation: selling SOEs and privatising public monopolies in Fascist Italy (1922–1925)\|title-url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-abstract/35/5/937/1695860\|quote=Italy's first Fascist government applied a large-scale privatisation policy between 1922 and 1925. The government privatised the State monopoly of match sale, eliminated the State monopoly on life insurances, sold most of the State-owned telephone networks and services to private firms, reprivatised the largest metal machinery producer, and awarded concessions to private firms to build and operate motorways. These interventions represent one of the earliest and most decisive privatisation episodes in the Western world. While ideological considerations may have had a certain influence, privatisation was used mainly as a political tool to build confidence among industrialists and to increase support for the government and the Partito Nazionale Fascista. Privatisation also contributed to balancing the budget, which was the core objective of Fascist economic policy in its first phase.\|publisher=Cambridge Journal of Economics\|doi=https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/beq051\|volume=35\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> Fascist Italy occupied [[Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974)\|Ethiopia]] in addition to its earlier colonies of [[Somalia]] and [[Eritrea]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Stephen Gowans\|year=2018\|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom\|chapter=Imperialism\|page=58–59\|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf\|city=Montreal\|publisher=Baraka Books\|isbn=9781771861427\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref>

	Fascist Italy allied itself with another [[Far-right politics\|extreme right]] [[capitalist]] ~~regime~~, the [[German Reich (1933–1945)\|German Reich]], and joined into the [[Second World War]] after Italian forces invaded the [[French Republic]], during the final days of the main German invasion of that nation. While seeing some territorial gains in Southern Europe in the initial part of the war, Fascist Italy would ~~later~~ prove itself to be an ~~ineffectual~~ military force, particularly in regards to the military events in [[Africa]] and [[Sicily]].		Fascist Italy allied itself with another [[Far-right politics\|extreme right]] [[capitalist]] régime, the [[German Reich (1933–1945)\|German Reich]], and joined into the [[Second World War]] after Italian forces invaded the [[French Republic]], during the final days of the main German invasion of that nation. From 1940 to mid-1943 Fascist Italy was the primary Axis power in both Africa and the Balkans.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Simon Gonsalves\|title=The Italian Army in the Second World War: A Historiographical Analysis\|title-url=https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/gljuh/vol5/iss1/2\|date=10-9-2017}}</ref> While seeing some territorial gains in Southern Europe in the initial part of the war, Fascist Italy would eventually prove itself to be an inadequate military force, particularly in regards to the military events in [[Africa]] and [[Sicily]].

	By 1943, after the [[World War II\|Allies]] had invaded mainland Italy, the long-time dictator, Benito Mussolini, was removed from power after a soft-coup. However, the ~~Germans~~ later returned him to power to lead a puppet state, known as the [[Italian Social Republic]].		By 1943, after the [[World War II\|Allies]] had invaded mainland Italy, the long-time dictator, Benito Mussolini, was removed from power after a soft-coup. However, the Third Reich later returned him to power to lead a puppet state, known as the [[Italian Social Republic]].

	[[Fascism]] in Italy ended in 1945, after Mussolini was killed, and his puppet state fell. The Kingdom of Italy itself was replaced by the modern [[Italian Republic\|Republic of Italy]] after a referendum was held.<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=historians.org\|title=The Rise and Fall of Fascism\|url=https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/gi-roundtable-series/pamphlets/em-18-what-is-the-future-of-italy-(1945)/the-rise-and-fall-of-fascism\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=The final collapse of fascism, though set off when Mussolini’s frightened lieutenants threw him overboard, was brought about by allied military victories plus the open rebellion of the people. Among the latter the strikes of industrial workers in Nazi-controlled northern Italy led the way. Nothing of this sort happened in Germany.}}</ref>		[[Fascism]] in Italy ended in 1945, after Mussolini was killed, and his puppet state fell. The Kingdom of Italy itself was replaced by the modern [[Italian Republic\|Republic of Italy]] after a referendum was held.<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=historians.org\|title=The Rise and Fall of Fascism\|url=https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/gi-roundtable-series/pamphlets/em-18-what-is-the-future-of-italy-(1945)/the-rise-and-fall-of-fascism\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=The final collapse of fascism, though set off when Mussolini’s frightened lieutenants threw him overboard, was brought about by allied military victories plus the open rebellion of the people. Among the latter the strikes of industrial workers in Nazi-controlled northern Italy led the way. Nothing of this sort happened in Germany.}}</ref>

Anarcho-Bolshevik: One additional citation.

2023-06-11T12:37:58Z

One additional citation.

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	Illnesses such as malaria, tuberculosis, and pellagra were common among the lower classes.<ref name=pg7/> Nonetheless, death and morbidity rates were on the decline, even after the triumph of Fascism.<ref name=pg89>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Carl T. Schmidt\|chapter=IV\|title=The Corporate State in Action\|title-url=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp\|location=New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=1939\|isbn=0 0001 0353909 4\|page=89\|pageurl=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp#page/n104/mode/1up}}</ref>		Illnesses such as malaria, tuberculosis, and pellagra were common among the lower classes.<ref name=pg7/> Nonetheless, death and morbidity rates were on the decline, even after the triumph of Fascism.<ref name=pg89>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Carl T. Schmidt\|chapter=IV\|title=The Corporate State in Action\|title-url=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp\|location=New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=1939\|isbn=0 0001 0353909 4\|page=89\|pageurl=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp#page/n104/mode/1up}}</ref>

	In March 1933, the Fascist authorities selected the town of Gruaro to experiment with a newly developed diphtheria vaccine,<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=http://www.laruotagruaro.it/download/ar_gruaro_pagg-234-235-236.pdf\|title=Gruaro - Venti secoli di storia\|page=234–236}}</ref> and 253 children aged between 13 months and eight years were recruited in this prophylactic operation despite the village doctor’s opposition. Immediately after the vaccine’s administration, however, the patients began to experience symptoms of varying severity; they were promptly admitted to the hospital of Portogruaro and the pediatric hospital run by Prof. Gino Frontali, in Padua where, despite the implementation of emergency measures, twenty-eight of the children died. Later it was discovered that a container of serum, prepared in a laboratory of the National Serum Therapy Institute of Naples, had been improperly boiled, thus exposing the patients to the still active and unattenuated bacterium. The Fascists let the incident go unpublished and no judicial inquiry was opened into it.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=https://www.ilgazzettino.it/nordest/venezia/bambini_cavie_vaccino_sperimentale_gruaro_venezia_1933_fascismo-224003.html\|title=Bimbi usati come cavie: sparito il fascicolo sulla strage di Gruaro\|date=2013-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=http://www.veneziatoday.it/cronaca/strage-gruaro-2933-bambini-morti-vaccino.html\|title="Noi, bambini scelti come cavie". La verità sulla strage di Gruaro del '33}}</ref><ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=https://www.ilgazzettino.it/nordest/venezia/dottor_sergio_borellini_strage_gruaro_vaccini_anti_difterite_medico_salv_ograve_bimbi_1933_portogruaro_venezia-413307.html\|title=Quel dottore che salvò migliaia di bimbi rifiutandosi di vaccinarli\|date=2014-05-13}}</ref>		In March 1933, the Fascist authorities selected the town of Gruaro to experiment with a newly developed diphtheria vaccine,<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=http://www.laruotagruaro.it/download/ar_gruaro_pagg-234-235-236.pdf\|title=Gruaro - Venti secoli di storia\|page=234–236}}</ref> and 253 children aged between thirteen months and eight years were recruited in this prophylactic operation despite the village doctor’s opposition. Immediately after the vaccine’s administration, however, the patients began to experience symptoms of varying severity; they were promptly admitted to the hospital of Portogruaro and the pediatric hospital run by Prof. Gino Frontali in Padua where, despite the implementation of emergency measures, twenty-eight of the children died. Later it was discovered that a container of serum, prepared in a laboratory of the National Serum Therapy Institute of Naples, had been improperly boiled, thus exposing the patients to the still active and unattenuated bacterium. The Fascists let the incident go unpublished and no judicial inquiry was opened into it.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=https://www.ilgazzettino.it/nordest/venezia/bambini_cavie_vaccino_sperimentale_gruaro_venezia_1933_fascismo-224003.html\|title=Bimbi usati come cavie: sparito il fascicolo sulla strage di Gruaro\|date=2013-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=http://www.veneziatoday.it/cronaca/strage-gruaro-2933-bambini-morti-vaccino.html\|title="Noi, bambini scelti come cavie". La verità sulla strage di Gruaro del '33}}</ref><ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=https://www.ilgazzettino.it/nordest/venezia/dottor_sergio_borellini_strage_gruaro_vaccini_anti_difterite_medico_salv_ograve_bimbi_1933_portogruaro_venezia-413307.html\|title=Quel dottore che salvò migliaia di bimbi rifiutandosi di vaccinarli\|date=2014-05-13}}</ref>

	===Education===		===Education===
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	===Language===		===Language===
	With reunification in the 1860s the bourgeois state proceeded to standarize the Italian language and impose it where it had previously been rare. For example, the predominant languages in Aosta Valley had long been French and to a less extent Arpitan, but in the 1880s the state introduced Italian in tribunal and other official documents and Italian grew in further influence with the introduction of railways and industrialisation in general, slowly turning Italian into the common language among Aosta’s lower classes. However, the Fascist state of the 1920s began an aggressive campaign to eliminate all ‘foreign’ languages and dialects in national territory despite the objections of thousands. In 1923 the bourgeois state declared the suppression of certain schools and prohibited education of students in any language other than Italian. The state forcibly converted dozens of French toponyms into Italian ones.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title=Histoire linguistique du Val d'Aoste, territoire francophone\|title-url=http://sociolangue.canalblog.com/archives/2012/03/30/23889717.html\|date=2012-03-30}}</ref> Even languages closely related to Italian (often called ‘dialects’), such as Emilian, Friulan,<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James Minahan\|title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC\|location=Westport, Connecticut\|publisher=Greenwood Press\|year=2000\|page=270\|ISBN=0-313-30984-1}}</ref> Ladin<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James Minahan\|title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC\|location=Westport, Connecticut\|publisher=Greenwood Press\|year=2000\|page=394\|ISBN=0-313-30984-1}}</ref>, Lombard, Ligurian, Neapolian, Piedmontese, Romagnolo, Sardinian, Sicilian, Venetian<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James B. Minahan\|title=Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGClDAAAQBAJ\|location=Santa Barbara, California\|publisher=Greenwood\|year=2016\|page=448\|ISBN=978-1-61069-953-2}}</ref> and elsewhat, were all suppressed. The one notable exception to this homogenization was the promotion of Latin, which witnessed a new age of poetry, literature, journalism, inscriptions, prose competitions, and vocabulary, frequently with Fascist themes, as a result both of state and extrastate actors.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|last1=Lamers\|first1=Han\|last2=Reitz-Joosse\|first2=Bettina\|title=Lingua Lictoria: The Latin Literature of Italian Fascism\|journal=Classical Receptions Journal\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|volume=8\|issue=2\|year=2015\|page=216–252\|DOI=10.1093/crj/clv001}}</ref>		With reunification in the 1860s the bourgeois state proceeded to standarize the Italian language and impose it where it had previously been rare. For example, the predominant languages in Aosta Valley had long been French and to a less extent Arpitan, but in the 1880s the state introduced Italian in tribunal and other official documents and Italian grew in further influence with the introduction of railways and industrialisation in general, slowly turning Italian into the common language among Aosta’s lower classes. However, the Fascist state of the 1920s began an aggressive campaign to eliminate all ‘foreign’ languages and dialects in national territory despite the objections of thousands. In 1923 the bourgeois state declared the suppression of certain schools and prohibited education of students in any language other than Italian. The state forcibly converted dozens of French toponyms into Italian ones.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title=Histoire linguistique du Val d'Aoste, territoire francophone\|title-url=http://sociolangue.canalblog.com/archives/2012/03/30/23889717.html\|date=2012-03-30}}</ref> Even languages closely related to Italian (often called ‘dialects’), such as Emilian, Friulan,<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James Minahan\|title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC\|location=Westport, Connecticut\|publisher=Greenwood Press\|year=2000\|page=270\|ISBN=0-313-30984-1}}</ref> Ladin<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James Minahan\|title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC\|location=Westport, Connecticut\|publisher=Greenwood Press\|year=2000\|page=394\|ISBN=0-313-30984-1}}</ref>, Lombard, Ligurian, Neapolian<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Pasquale Verdicchio\|title=Bound by Distance: Rethinking Nationalism Through the Italian Diaspora\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5cyVqhHFLUC\|location=Cranbury, New Jersey\|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press\|year=1997\|page=57\|ISBN=0-8386-3683-7}}</ref> , Piedmontese, Romagnolo, Sardinian, Sicilian, Venetian<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James B. Minahan\|title=Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGClDAAAQBAJ\|location=Santa Barbara, California\|publisher=Greenwood\|year=2016\|page=448\|ISBN=978-1-61069-953-2}}</ref> and elsewhat, were all suppressed. The one notable exception to this homogenization was the promotion of Latin, which witnessed a new age of poetry, literature, journalism, inscriptions, prose competitions, and vocabulary, frequently with Fascist themes, as a result both of state and extrastate actors.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|last1=Lamers\|first1=Han\|last2=Reitz-Joosse\|first2=Bettina\|title=Lingua Lictoria: The Latin Literature of Italian Fascism\|journal=Classical Receptions Journal\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|volume=8\|issue=2\|year=2015\|page=216–252\|DOI=10.1093/crj/clv001}}</ref>

	Sardinian culture had only continued to decline in the 1860s and later,<ref>"In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy, and the island became part of the unified Italian state. Sardinia's distinct language and culture as well as its geographic isolation from the Italian mainland, made it something of a forgotten province, however." {{citation\|title-url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sardinia-island-Italy/Aragonese-domination#ref333582\|title=Sardinia, History, People and Points of Interest. Sardinia in a united Italy\|publisher=Britannica}}</ref> but the process of forced Italianization had only intensified during Fascism;<ref>"Il ventennio fascista – come ha affermato Manlio Brigaglia ‒ segnò il definitivo ingresso della Sardegna nel “sistema" nazionale. L’isola fu colonialisticamente integrata nella cultura nazionale: modi di vita, costumi, visioni generali, parole d’ordine politiche furono imposte sia attraverso la scuola, dalla quale partì un’azione repressiva nei confronti dell’uso della lingua sarda, sia attraverso le organizzazione del partito..." Garroni, M. (2010). [https://art.torvergata.it/retrieve/handle/2108/1380/6630/capitolo%201.pdf ''La Sardegna durante il ventennio fascista''], art.torvergata.it</ref> the bourgeois state repressed local cultural expressions, including Sardinian mask festivals<ref>Deidda, Giancarlo (1990). ''Folk festivals in Sardinia'', Janus, p. 7</ref> and improvised poetry competitions,<ref>L. Marroccu, ''Il ventennio fascista''</ref><ref>M. Farinelli, ''The Invisible Motherland? The Catalan-Speaking Minority in Sardinia and Catalan Nationalism'', p. 15</ref><ref>{{citation\|title-url=http://www.manifestosardo.org/quando-a-scuola-si-insegnava-la-lingua-sarda/\|title=Quando a scuola si insegnava la lingua sarda\|work=Il Manifesto Sardo}}</ref><ref name="Remundu">[http://www.sardegnacultura.it/j/v/253?s=23661&v=2&c=2767&c1=2797&t=1 ''Remundu Piras'', Sardegna Cultura]</ref><ref>Massimo Pittau, ''Grammatica del sardo illustre'', Nuoro, [http://www.pittau.it/Sardo/sardoillustre.html Premessa]</ref><ref>Salvi, Sergio (1974). ''Le lingue tagliate'', Rizzoli, p. 191</ref> and a large number of Sardinian surnames were forcibly ‘Italianized’. After an argument between the Sardinian poet Antioco Casula and the fascist journalist Gino Anchisi, who claimed that ‘once the region is moribund or dead, so will the dialect [''sic'']’, the Fascists managed to prohibit Sardinian from the printing press as well.<ref>{{citation\|title-url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3400254.pdf\|title=Casula, Francesco. ''Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe''}}</ref><ref>{{citation\|title-url=http://www.regione.sardegna.it/messaggero/1982_dicembre_21.pdf\|title=Masala, Francesco. ''Est torradu Montanaru'', Messaggero, 1982}}</ref> Antioco Casula tied the significance of Sardinian to the practices of cultural resistance of an indigenous ethnic group,<ref>{{citation\|title-url=https://www.manifestosardo.org/montanaru-e-la-lingua-sarda/\|title=Montanaru e la lingua sarda\|year=2019\|website=Il Manifesto Sardo}}</ref><ref group=note>Casula's reply to Anchisi, arguing in favour of Sardinian as the only means through which the island’s cultural reawakening could be pursued, was never published in the newspaper ''L'Unione Sarda'', whose editorial staff properly censored it in accordance with the ruling class’s directives. The newspaper then justified itself in the following way, in a personal letter addressed to Casula on 12 September: ‘Your article could not be published because part of it clearly exalts the region too much. This is absolutely forbidden by the current provisions of the Head of Government’s press office, which specifically state: ‘In no way and for no reason does the region exist.’ We are very sorry. However, we would ask you to redo the article by simply talking about your poetry in dialect [''sic''] without touching on this dangerous subject!’ {{citation\|title-url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3400254.pdf\|author=Francesco Casula\|title=Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe\|page=66}}</ref> whose linguistic repertoire had to be introduced in school to regain a lost dignity.<ref>«Il diffondere l’uso della lingua sarda in tutte le scuole di ogni ordine e grado non è per gli educatori sardi soltanto una necessità psicologica alla quale nessuno può sottrarsi, ma è il solo modo di essere Sardi, di essere cioè quello che veramente siamo per conservare e difendere la personalità del nostro popolo. E se tutti fossimo in questa disposizione di idee e di propositi ci faremmo rispettare più di quanto non-ci rispettino.» {{citation\|author=Antioco Casula\|title=Poesie scelte\|publisher=Edizioni 3T\|place=Cagliari\|year=1982\|page=35}}</ref>		Sardinian culture had only continued to decline in the 1860s and later,<ref>"In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy, and the island became part of the unified Italian state. Sardinia's distinct language and culture as well as its geographic isolation from the Italian mainland, made it something of a forgotten province, however." {{citation\|title-url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sardinia-island-Italy/Aragonese-domination#ref333582\|title=Sardinia, History, People and Points of Interest. Sardinia in a united Italy\|publisher=Britannica}}</ref> but the process of forced Italianization had only intensified during Fascism;<ref>"Il ventennio fascista – come ha affermato Manlio Brigaglia ‒ segnò il definitivo ingresso della Sardegna nel “sistema" nazionale. L’isola fu colonialisticamente integrata nella cultura nazionale: modi di vita, costumi, visioni generali, parole d’ordine politiche furono imposte sia attraverso la scuola, dalla quale partì un’azione repressiva nei confronti dell’uso della lingua sarda, sia attraverso le organizzazione del partito..." Garroni, M. (2010). [https://art.torvergata.it/retrieve/handle/2108/1380/6630/capitolo%201.pdf ''La Sardegna durante il ventennio fascista''], art.torvergata.it</ref> the bourgeois state repressed local cultural expressions, including Sardinian mask festivals<ref>Deidda, Giancarlo (1990). ''Folk festivals in Sardinia'', Janus, p. 7</ref> and improvised poetry competitions,<ref>L. Marroccu, ''Il ventennio fascista''</ref><ref>M. Farinelli, ''The Invisible Motherland? The Catalan-Speaking Minority in Sardinia and Catalan Nationalism'', p. 15</ref><ref>{{citation\|title-url=http://www.manifestosardo.org/quando-a-scuola-si-insegnava-la-lingua-sarda/\|title=Quando a scuola si insegnava la lingua sarda\|work=Il Manifesto Sardo}}</ref><ref name="Remundu">[http://www.sardegnacultura.it/j/v/253?s=23661&v=2&c=2767&c1=2797&t=1 ''Remundu Piras'', Sardegna Cultura]</ref><ref>Massimo Pittau, ''Grammatica del sardo illustre'', Nuoro, [http://www.pittau.it/Sardo/sardoillustre.html Premessa]</ref><ref>Salvi, Sergio (1974). ''Le lingue tagliate'', Rizzoli, p. 191</ref> and a large number of Sardinian surnames were forcibly ‘Italianized’. After an argument between the Sardinian poet Antioco Casula and the fascist journalist Gino Anchisi, who claimed that ‘once the region is moribund or dead, so will the dialect [''sic'']’, the Fascists managed to prohibit Sardinian from the printing press as well.<ref>{{citation\|title-url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3400254.pdf\|title=Casula, Francesco. ''Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe''}}</ref><ref>{{citation\|title-url=http://www.regione.sardegna.it/messaggero/1982_dicembre_21.pdf\|title=Masala, Francesco. ''Est torradu Montanaru'', Messaggero, 1982}}</ref> Antioco Casula tied the significance of Sardinian to the practices of cultural resistance of an indigenous ethnic group,<ref>{{citation\|title-url=https://www.manifestosardo.org/montanaru-e-la-lingua-sarda/\|title=Montanaru e la lingua sarda\|year=2019\|website=Il Manifesto Sardo}}</ref><ref group=note>Casula's reply to Anchisi, arguing in favour of Sardinian as the only means through which the island’s cultural reawakening could be pursued, was never published in the newspaper ''L'Unione Sarda'', whose editorial staff properly censored it in accordance with the ruling class’s directives. The newspaper then justified itself in the following way, in a personal letter addressed to Casula on 12 September: ‘Your article could not be published because part of it clearly exalts the region too much. This is absolutely forbidden by the current provisions of the Head of Government’s press office, which specifically state: ‘In no way and for no reason does the region exist.’ We are very sorry. However, we would ask you to redo the article by simply talking about your poetry in dialect [''sic''] without touching on this dangerous subject!’ {{citation\|title-url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3400254.pdf\|author=Francesco Casula\|title=Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe\|page=66}}</ref> whose linguistic repertoire had to be introduced in school to regain a lost dignity.<ref>«Il diffondere l’uso della lingua sarda in tutte le scuole di ogni ordine e grado non è per gli educatori sardi soltanto una necessità psicologica alla quale nessuno può sottrarsi, ma è il solo modo di essere Sardi, di essere cioè quello che veramente siamo per conservare e difendere la personalità del nostro popolo. E se tutti fossimo in questa disposizione di idee e di propositi ci faremmo rispettare più di quanto non-ci rispettino.» {{citation\|author=Antioco Casula\|title=Poesie scelte\|publisher=Edizioni 3T\|place=Cagliari\|year=1982\|page=35}}</ref>

Anarcho-Bolshevik: Added the massacre of Gruaro youths.

2023-06-11T12:08:32Z

Added the massacre of Gruaro youths.

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:08, 11 June 2023
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	===Healthcare===		===Healthcare===
	Illnesses such as malaria, tuberculosis, and pellagra were common among the lower classes.<ref name=pg7/> Nonetheless, death and morbidity rates were on the decline, even after the triumph of Fascism.<ref name=pg89>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Carl T. Schmidt\|chapter=IV\|title=The Corporate State in Action\|title-url=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp\|location=New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=1939\|isbn=0 0001 0353909 4\|page=89\|pageurl=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp#page/n104/mode/1up}}</ref>		Illnesses such as malaria, tuberculosis, and pellagra were common among the lower classes.<ref name=pg7/> Nonetheless, death and morbidity rates were on the decline, even after the triumph of Fascism.<ref name=pg89>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Carl T. Schmidt\|chapter=IV\|title=The Corporate State in Action\|title-url=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp\|location=New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=1939\|isbn=0 0001 0353909 4\|page=89\|pageurl=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp#page/n104/mode/1up}}</ref>

			In March 1933, the Fascist authorities selected the town of Gruaro to experiment with a newly developed diphtheria vaccine,<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=http://www.laruotagruaro.it/download/ar_gruaro_pagg-234-235-236.pdf\|title=Gruaro - Venti secoli di storia\|page=234–236}}</ref> and 253 children aged between 13 months and eight years were recruited in this prophylactic operation despite the village doctor’s opposition. Immediately after the vaccine’s administration, however, the patients began to experience symptoms of varying severity; they were promptly admitted to the hospital of Portogruaro and the pediatric hospital run by Prof. Gino Frontali, in Padua where, despite the implementation of emergency measures, twenty-eight of the children died. Later it was discovered that a container of serum, prepared in a laboratory of the National Serum Therapy Institute of Naples, had been improperly boiled, thus exposing the patients to the still active and unattenuated bacterium. The Fascists let the incident go unpublished and no judicial inquiry was opened into it.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=https://www.ilgazzettino.it/nordest/venezia/bambini_cavie_vaccino_sperimentale_gruaro_venezia_1933_fascismo-224003.html\|title=Bimbi usati come cavie: sparito il fascicolo sulla strage di Gruaro\|date=2013-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=http://www.veneziatoday.it/cronaca/strage-gruaro-2933-bambini-morti-vaccino.html\|title="Noi, bambini scelti come cavie". La verità sulla strage di Gruaro del '33}}</ref><ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title-url=https://www.ilgazzettino.it/nordest/venezia/dottor_sergio_borellini_strage_gruaro_vaccini_anti_difterite_medico_salv_ograve_bimbi_1933_portogruaro_venezia-413307.html\|title=Quel dottore che salvò migliaia di bimbi rifiutandosi di vaccinarli\|date=2014-05-13}}</ref>

	===Education===		===Education===
Line 89:		Line 91:

	===Language===		===Language===
	With reunification in the 1860s the bourgeois state proceeded to standarize the Italian language and impose it where it had previously been rare. For example, the predominant languages in Aosta Valley had long been French and to a less extent Arpitan, but in the 1880s the state introduced Italian in tribunal and other official documents and Italian grew in further influence with the introduction of railways and industrialisation in general, slowly turning Italian into the common language among Aosta’s lower classes. However, the Fascist state of the 1920s began an aggressive campaign to eliminate all ‘foreign’ languages and dialects in national territory despite the objections of thousands. In 1923 the bourgeois state declared the suppression of certain schools and prohibited education of students in any language other than Italian. The state forcibly converted dozens of French toponyms into Italian ones.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title=Histoire linguistique du Val d'Aoste, territoire francophone\|title-url=http://sociolangue.canalblog.com/archives/2012/03/30/23889717.html\|date=2012-03-30}}</ref> Even languages closely related to Italian (often called ‘dialects’), such as Emilian, Friulan,<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James Minahan\|title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC\|location=Westport, Connecticut\|publisher=Greenwood Press\|year=2000\|page=270\|ISBN=0-313-30984-1}}</ref> Ladin<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James Minahan\|title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC\|location=Westport, Connecticut\|publisher=Greenwood Press\|year=2000\|page=394\|ISBN=0-313-30984-1}}</ref>, Lombard, Ligurian, Neapolian, Piedmontese, Romagnolo, Sardinian, Sicilian and elsewhat, were all suppressed. The one notable exception to this homogenization was the promotion of Latin, which witnessed a new age of poetry, literature, journalism, inscriptions, prose competitions, and vocabulary, frequently with Fascist themes, as a result both of state and extrastate actors.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|last1=Lamers\|first1=Han\|last2=Reitz-Joosse\|first2=Bettina\|title=Lingua Lictoria: The Latin Literature of Italian Fascism\|journal=Classical Receptions Journal\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|volume=8\|issue=2\|year=2015\|page=216–252\|DOI=10.1093/crj/clv001}}</ref>		With reunification in the 1860s the bourgeois state proceeded to standarize the Italian language and impose it where it had previously been rare. For example, the predominant languages in Aosta Valley had long been French and to a less extent Arpitan, but in the 1880s the state introduced Italian in tribunal and other official documents and Italian grew in further influence with the introduction of railways and industrialisation in general, slowly turning Italian into the common language among Aosta’s lower classes. However, the Fascist state of the 1920s began an aggressive campaign to eliminate all ‘foreign’ languages and dialects in national territory despite the objections of thousands. In 1923 the bourgeois state declared the suppression of certain schools and prohibited education of students in any language other than Italian. The state forcibly converted dozens of French toponyms into Italian ones.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|title=Histoire linguistique du Val d'Aoste, territoire francophone\|title-url=http://sociolangue.canalblog.com/archives/2012/03/30/23889717.html\|date=2012-03-30}}</ref> Even languages closely related to Italian (often called ‘dialects’), such as Emilian, Friulan,<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James Minahan\|title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC\|location=Westport, Connecticut\|publisher=Greenwood Press\|year=2000\|page=270\|ISBN=0-313-30984-1}}</ref> Ladin<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James Minahan\|title=One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC\|location=Westport, Connecticut\|publisher=Greenwood Press\|year=2000\|page=394\|ISBN=0-313-30984-1}}</ref>, Lombard, Ligurian, Neapolian, Piedmontese, Romagnolo, Sardinian, Sicilian, Venetian<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=James B. Minahan\|title=Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups around the World\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGClDAAAQBAJ\|location=Santa Barbara, California\|publisher=Greenwood\|year=2016\|page=448\|ISBN=978-1-61069-953-2}}</ref> and elsewhat, were all suppressed. The one notable exception to this homogenization was the promotion of Latin, which witnessed a new age of poetry, literature, journalism, inscriptions, prose competitions, and vocabulary, frequently with Fascist themes, as a result both of state and extrastate actors.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|last1=Lamers\|first1=Han\|last2=Reitz-Joosse\|first2=Bettina\|title=Lingua Lictoria: The Latin Literature of Italian Fascism\|journal=Classical Receptions Journal\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|volume=8\|issue=2\|year=2015\|page=216–252\|DOI=10.1093/crj/clv001}}</ref>

	Sardinian culture had only continued to decline in the 1860s and later,<ref>"In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy, and the island became part of the unified Italian state. Sardinia's distinct language and culture as well as its geographic isolation from the Italian mainland, made it something of a forgotten province, however." {{citation\|title-url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sardinia-island-Italy/Aragonese-domination#ref333582\|title=Sardinia, History, People and Points of Interest. Sardinia in a united Italy\|publisher=Britannica}}</ref> but the process of forced Italianization had only intensified during Fascism;<ref>"Il ventennio fascista – come ha affermato Manlio Brigaglia ‒ segnò il definitivo ingresso della Sardegna nel “sistema" nazionale. L’isola fu colonialisticamente integrata nella cultura nazionale: modi di vita, costumi, visioni generali, parole d’ordine politiche furono imposte sia attraverso la scuola, dalla quale partì un’azione repressiva nei confronti dell’uso della lingua sarda, sia attraverso le organizzazione del partito..." Garroni, M. (2010). [https://art.torvergata.it/retrieve/handle/2108/1380/6630/capitolo%201.pdf ''La Sardegna durante il ventennio fascista''], art.torvergata.it</ref> the bourgeois state repressed local cultural expressions, including Sardinian mask festivals<ref>Deidda, Giancarlo (1990). ''Folk festivals in Sardinia'', Janus, p. 7</ref> and improvised poetry competitions,<ref>L. Marroccu, ''Il ventennio fascista''</ref><ref>M. Farinelli, ''The Invisible Motherland? The Catalan-Speaking Minority in Sardinia and Catalan Nationalism'', p. 15</ref><ref>{{citation\|title-url=http://www.manifestosardo.org/quando-a-scuola-si-insegnava-la-lingua-sarda/\|title=Quando a scuola si insegnava la lingua sarda\|work=Il Manifesto Sardo}}</ref><ref name="Remundu">[http://www.sardegnacultura.it/j/v/253?s=23661&v=2&c=2767&c1=2797&t=1 ''Remundu Piras'', Sardegna Cultura]</ref><ref>Massimo Pittau, ''Grammatica del sardo illustre'', Nuoro, [http://www.pittau.it/Sardo/sardoillustre.html Premessa]</ref><ref>Salvi, Sergio (1974). ''Le lingue tagliate'', Rizzoli, p. 191</ref> and a large number of Sardinian surnames were forcibly ‘Italianized’. After an argument between the Sardinian poet Antioco Casula and the fascist journalist Gino Anchisi, who claimed that ‘once the region is moribund or dead, so will the dialect [''sic'']’, the Fascists managed to prohibit Sardinian from the printing press as well.<ref>{{citation\|title-url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3400254.pdf\|title=Casula, Francesco. ''Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe''}}</ref><ref>{{citation\|title-url=http://www.regione.sardegna.it/messaggero/1982_dicembre_21.pdf\|title=Masala, Francesco. ''Est torradu Montanaru'', Messaggero, 1982}}</ref> Antioco Casula tied the significance of Sardinian to the practices of cultural resistance of an indigenous ethnic group,<ref>{{citation\|title-url=https://www.manifestosardo.org/montanaru-e-la-lingua-sarda/\|title=Montanaru e la lingua sarda\|year=2019\|website=Il Manifesto Sardo}}</ref><ref group=note>Casula's reply to Anchisi, arguing in favour of Sardinian as the only means through which the island’s cultural reawakening could be pursued, was never published in the newspaper ''L'Unione Sarda'', whose editorial staff properly censored it in accordance with the ruling class’s directives. The newspaper then justified itself in the following way, in a personal letter addressed to Casula on 12 September: ‘Your article could not be published because part of it clearly exalts the region too much. This is absolutely forbidden by the current provisions of the Head of Government’s press office, which specifically state: ‘In no way and for no reason does the region exist.’ We are very sorry. However, we would ask you to redo the article by simply talking about your poetry in dialect [''sic''] without touching on this dangerous subject!’ {{citation\|title-url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3400254.pdf\|author=Francesco Casula\|title=Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe\|page=66}}</ref> whose linguistic repertoire had to be introduced in school to regain a lost dignity.<ref>«Il diffondere l’uso della lingua sarda in tutte le scuole di ogni ordine e grado non è per gli educatori sardi soltanto una necessità psicologica alla quale nessuno può sottrarsi, ma è il solo modo di essere Sardi, di essere cioè quello che veramente siamo per conservare e difendere la personalità del nostro popolo. E se tutti fossimo in questa disposizione di idee e di propositi ci faremmo rispettare più di quanto non-ci rispettino.» {{citation\|author=Antioco Casula\|title=Poesie scelte\|publisher=Edizioni 3T\|place=Cagliari\|year=1982\|page=35}}</ref>		Sardinian culture had only continued to decline in the 1860s and later,<ref>"In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy, and the island became part of the unified Italian state. Sardinia's distinct language and culture as well as its geographic isolation from the Italian mainland, made it something of a forgotten province, however." {{citation\|title-url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sardinia-island-Italy/Aragonese-domination#ref333582\|title=Sardinia, History, People and Points of Interest. Sardinia in a united Italy\|publisher=Britannica}}</ref> but the process of forced Italianization had only intensified during Fascism;<ref>"Il ventennio fascista – come ha affermato Manlio Brigaglia ‒ segnò il definitivo ingresso della Sardegna nel “sistema" nazionale. L’isola fu colonialisticamente integrata nella cultura nazionale: modi di vita, costumi, visioni generali, parole d’ordine politiche furono imposte sia attraverso la scuola, dalla quale partì un’azione repressiva nei confronti dell’uso della lingua sarda, sia attraverso le organizzazione del partito..." Garroni, M. (2010). [https://art.torvergata.it/retrieve/handle/2108/1380/6630/capitolo%201.pdf ''La Sardegna durante il ventennio fascista''], art.torvergata.it</ref> the bourgeois state repressed local cultural expressions, including Sardinian mask festivals<ref>Deidda, Giancarlo (1990). ''Folk festivals in Sardinia'', Janus, p. 7</ref> and improvised poetry competitions,<ref>L. Marroccu, ''Il ventennio fascista''</ref><ref>M. Farinelli, ''The Invisible Motherland? The Catalan-Speaking Minority in Sardinia and Catalan Nationalism'', p. 15</ref><ref>{{citation\|title-url=http://www.manifestosardo.org/quando-a-scuola-si-insegnava-la-lingua-sarda/\|title=Quando a scuola si insegnava la lingua sarda\|work=Il Manifesto Sardo}}</ref><ref name="Remundu">[http://www.sardegnacultura.it/j/v/253?s=23661&v=2&c=2767&c1=2797&t=1 ''Remundu Piras'', Sardegna Cultura]</ref><ref>Massimo Pittau, ''Grammatica del sardo illustre'', Nuoro, [http://www.pittau.it/Sardo/sardoillustre.html Premessa]</ref><ref>Salvi, Sergio (1974). ''Le lingue tagliate'', Rizzoli, p. 191</ref> and a large number of Sardinian surnames were forcibly ‘Italianized’. After an argument between the Sardinian poet Antioco Casula and the fascist journalist Gino Anchisi, who claimed that ‘once the region is moribund or dead, so will the dialect [''sic'']’, the Fascists managed to prohibit Sardinian from the printing press as well.<ref>{{citation\|title-url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3400254.pdf\|title=Casula, Francesco. ''Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe''}}</ref><ref>{{citation\|title-url=http://www.regione.sardegna.it/messaggero/1982_dicembre_21.pdf\|title=Masala, Francesco. ''Est torradu Montanaru'', Messaggero, 1982}}</ref> Antioco Casula tied the significance of Sardinian to the practices of cultural resistance of an indigenous ethnic group,<ref>{{citation\|title-url=https://www.manifestosardo.org/montanaru-e-la-lingua-sarda/\|title=Montanaru e la lingua sarda\|year=2019\|website=Il Manifesto Sardo}}</ref><ref group=note>Casula's reply to Anchisi, arguing in favour of Sardinian as the only means through which the island’s cultural reawakening could be pursued, was never published in the newspaper ''L'Unione Sarda'', whose editorial staff properly censored it in accordance with the ruling class’s directives. The newspaper then justified itself in the following way, in a personal letter addressed to Casula on 12 September: ‘Your article could not be published because part of it clearly exalts the region too much. This is absolutely forbidden by the current provisions of the Head of Government’s press office, which specifically state: ‘In no way and for no reason does the region exist.’ We are very sorry. However, we would ask you to redo the article by simply talking about your poetry in dialect [''sic''] without touching on this dangerous subject!’ {{citation\|title-url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3400254.pdf\|author=Francesco Casula\|title=Sa chistione de sa limba in Montanaru e oe\|page=66}}</ref> whose linguistic repertoire had to be introduced in school to regain a lost dignity.<ref>«Il diffondere l’uso della lingua sarda in tutte le scuole di ogni ordine e grado non è per gli educatori sardi soltanto una necessità psicologica alla quale nessuno può sottrarsi, ma è il solo modo di essere Sardi, di essere cioè quello che veramente siamo per conservare e difendere la personalità del nostro popolo. E se tutti fossimo in questa disposizione di idee e di propositi ci faremmo rispettare più di quanto non-ci rispettino.» {{citation\|author=Antioco Casula\|title=Poesie scelte\|publisher=Edizioni 3T\|place=Cagliari\|year=1982\|page=35}}</ref>

J Pi: /* Politics */

2023-05-27T18:04:55Z

Politics

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:04, 27 May 2023
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	==Politics==		==Politics==
	With a few brief exceptions, the lower classes were passive in the Kingdom of Italy’s politics. Even after the electoral reform of 1882, most people were without franchise, and universal suffrage remained unavailable to men until 1912. The base of political power always rested with a minority of upper-class men, regardless of who exactly was heading the state.<ref name=pg7>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Carl T. Schmidt\|chapter=I\|title=The Corporate State in Action\|title-url=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp\|location=New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=1939\|isbn=0 0001 0353909 4\|page=7–8\|pageurl=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp#page/n22/mode/1up}}</ref> The parliamentary system resisted even the ~~modestest~~ of reforms, and the political system left the lower classes and some privileged intellectuals dissatisfied.<ref name=pg10>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Carl T. Schmidt\|chapter=I\|title=The Corporate State in Action\|title-url=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp\|location=New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=1939\|isbn=0 0001 0353909 4\|page=10\|pageurl=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp#page/n25/mode/1up}}</ref>		With a few brief exceptions, the lower classes were passive in the Kingdom of Italy’s politics. Even after the electoral reform of 1882, most people were without franchise, and universal suffrage remained unavailable to men until 1912. The base of political power always rested with a minority of upper-class men, regardless of who exactly was heading the state.<ref name=pg7>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Carl T. Schmidt\|chapter=I\|title=The Corporate State in Action\|title-url=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp\|location=New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=1939\|isbn=0 0001 0353909 4\|page=7–8\|pageurl=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp#page/n22/mode/1up}}</ref> The parliamentary system resisted even the most modest of reforms, and the political system left the lower classes and some privileged intellectuals dissatisfied.<ref name=pg10>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Carl T. Schmidt\|chapter=I\|title=The Corporate State in Action\|title-url=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp\|location=New York\|publisher=Oxford University Press\|year=1939\|isbn=0 0001 0353909 4\|page=10\|pageurl=https://archive.org/stream/corporatestatein010773mbp#page/n25/mode/1up}}</ref>

	==Economy==		==Economy==

Anarcho-Bolshevik: Copied content from https://wiki.leftypol.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy

2023-03-15T06:17:46Z

Copied content from https://wiki.leftypol.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy

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← Older revision		Revision as of 17:16, 8 January 2024
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	Under the [[reactionary]] and despotic government, [[Communist party\|socialist and communist organizations]], [[Trade union\|trade unions]], and other organs of the [[working class]] saw massive repression and deprivation, with the economy being organized in accordance to the betterment of the [[Bourgeoisie\|wealthy]], at the large expense of the workers. The Fascist régime also implemented the first modern privatization programs, as well as the mass cutting of social programs, in history.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Germa Bel\|year=2011\|title=The first privatisation: selling SOEs and privatising public monopolies in Fascist Italy (1922–1925)\|title-url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-abstract/35/5/937/1695860\|quote=Italy's first Fascist government applied a large-scale privatisation policy between 1922 and 1925. The government privatised the State monopoly of match sale, eliminated the State monopoly on life insurances, sold most of the State-owned telephone networks and services to private firms, reprivatised the largest metal machinery producer, and awarded concessions to private firms to build and operate motorways. These interventions represent one of the earliest and most decisive privatisation episodes in the Western world. While ideological considerations may have had a certain influence, privatisation was used mainly as a political tool to build confidence among industrialists and to increase support for the government and the Partito Nazionale Fascista. Privatisation also contributed to balancing the budget, which was the core objective of Fascist economic policy in its first phase.\|publisher=Cambridge Journal of Economics\|doi=https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/beq051\|volume=35\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> Fascist Italy occupied [[Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974)\|Ethiopia]] in addition to its earlier colonies of [[Somalia]] and [[Eritrea]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Stephen Gowans\|year=2018\|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom\|chapter=Imperialism\|page=58–59\|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf\|city=Montreal\|publisher=Baraka Books\|isbn=9781771861427\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref>		Under the [[reactionary]] and despotic government, [[Communist party\|socialist and communist organizations]], [[Trade union\|trade unions]], and other organs of the [[working class]] saw massive repression and deprivation, with the economy being organized in accordance to the betterment of the [[Bourgeoisie\|wealthy]], at the large expense of the workers. The Fascist régime also implemented the first modern privatization programs, as well as the mass cutting of social programs, in history.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Germa Bel\|year=2011\|title=The first privatisation: selling SOEs and privatising public monopolies in Fascist Italy (1922–1925)\|title-url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-abstract/35/5/937/1695860\|quote=Italy's first Fascist government applied a large-scale privatisation policy between 1922 and 1925. The government privatised the State monopoly of match sale, eliminated the State monopoly on life insurances, sold most of the State-owned telephone networks and services to private firms, reprivatised the largest metal machinery producer, and awarded concessions to private firms to build and operate motorways. These interventions represent one of the earliest and most decisive privatisation episodes in the Western world. While ideological considerations may have had a certain influence, privatisation was used mainly as a political tool to build confidence among industrialists and to increase support for the government and the Partito Nazionale Fascista. Privatisation also contributed to balancing the budget, which was the core objective of Fascist economic policy in its first phase.\|publisher=Cambridge Journal of Economics\|doi=https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/beq051\|volume=35\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> Fascist Italy occupied [[Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974)\|Ethiopia]] in addition to its earlier colonies of [[Somalia]] and [[Eritrea]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Stephen Gowans\|year=2018\|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom\|chapter=Imperialism\|page=58–59\|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf\|city=Montreal\|publisher=Baraka Books\|isbn=9781771861427\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref>

	Fascist Italy allied itself with another [[Far-right politics\|extreme right]] [[capitalist]] ~~régime~~, the [[German Reich (1933–1945)\|German Reich]], and joined into the [[Second World War]] after Italian forces invaded the [[French Republic]], during the final days of the main German invasion of that nation. From 1940 to mid-1943 Fascist Italy was the primary Axis power in both Africa and the Balkans.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Simon Gonsalves\|title=The Italian Army in the Second World War: A Historiographical Analysis\|title-url=https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/gljuh/vol5/iss1/2\|date=10-9-2017}}</ref> While seeing some territorial gains in Southern Europe in the initial part of the war, Fascist Italy would eventually prove itself to be an inadequate military force, particularly in regards to the military events in [[Africa]] and [[Sicily]].		Fascist Italy allied itself with another [[Far-right politics\|extreme right]] [[capitalist]] regime, the [[German Reich (1933–1945)\|German Reich]], and joined into the [[Second World War]] after Italian forces invaded the [[French Republic]], during the final days of the main German invasion of that nation. From 1940 to mid-1943 Fascist Italy was the primary Axis power in both Africa and the Balkans.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Simon Gonsalves\|title=The Italian Army in the Second World War: A Historiographical Analysis\|title-url=https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/gljuh/vol5/iss1/2\|date=10-9-2017}}</ref> While seeing some territorial gains in Southern Europe in the initial part of the war, Fascist Italy would eventually prove itself to be an inadequate military force, particularly in regards to the military events in [[Africa]] and [[Sicily]].

	By 1943, after the [[World War II\|Allies]] had invaded mainland Italy, the long-time dictator, Benito Mussolini, was removed from power after a soft-coup. However, the Third Reich later returned him to power to lead a puppet state, known as the [[Italian Social Republic]].		By 1943, after the [[World War II\|Allies]] had invaded mainland Italy, the long-time dictator, Benito Mussolini, was removed from power after a soft-coup. However, the Third Reich later returned him to power to lead a puppet state, known as the [[Italian Social Republic]].

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:57, 11 June 2023
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	{{Infobox country\|name=Kingdom of Italy\|native_name=Regno d'Italia\|image_flag=Kingdom of Italy flag.png\|image_coat=Fascist Italy coast of arms.png\|capital=[[Rome]]\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]] (decaying)\|government_type=Unitary parliamentary monarchy (1861–1922)<br>Unitary [[bourgeois democracy]] under [[fascist]] influence (1922–1925)<br>Unitary fascist state (1925–1943)\|leader_title1=Monarch\|leader_name1=Victor Emmanuel III\|leader_title2=Duce\|leader_name2=[[Benito Mussolini]]\|life_span=~~1861–1943~~\|image_flag2=NFP flag.png\|flag_caption=Flags of Italy and the [[National Fascist Party]]\|motto=Credere, obbedire, combattere<br>(Motto of the [[National Fascist Party]])\|image_map=Kingdom of Italy map.png\|religion=Roman Catholicism\|legislature=Parliament\|established_event2=[[March on Rome]]\|established_date2=31 October 1922\|established_event3=Second Italo-Abyssinian War\|established_date3=1935-1936\|established_event4=Conquest of Albania\|established_date4=April 7–12, 1939\|established_event5=Intervention into the [[Second World War]]\|established_date5=10 June 1940\|established_event6=Deposition of Mussolini\|established_date6=25 July 1943\|area_km2=3,798,000\|population_estimate=42,993,602\|population_estimate_year=1936\|currency=Italian Lira}}		{{Infobox country\|name=Kingdom of Italy\|native_name=Regno d'Italia\|image_flag=Kingdom of Italy flag.png\|image_coat=Fascist Italy coast of arms.png\|capital=[[Rome]]\|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]] (decaying)\|government_type=Unitary parliamentary monarchy (1861–1922)<br>Unitary [[bourgeois democracy]] under [[fascist]] influence (1922–1925)<br>Unitary fascist state (1925–1943)\|leader_title1=Monarch\|leader_name1=Victor Emmanuel III\|leader_title2=Duce\|leader_name2=[[Benito Mussolini]]\|life_span=1861–1946\|image_flag2=NFP flag.png\|flag_caption=Flags of Italy and the [[National Fascist Party]]\|motto=Credere, obbedire, combattere<br>(Motto of the [[National Fascist Party]])\|image_map=Kingdom of Italy map.png\|religion=Roman Catholicism\|legislature=Parliament\|established_event2=[[March on Rome]]\|established_date2=31 October 1922\|established_event3=Second Italo-Abyssinian War\|established_date3=1935-1936\|established_event4=Conquest of Albania\|established_date4=April 7–12, 1939\|established_event5=Intervention into the [[Second World War]]\|established_date5=10 June 1940\|established_event6=Deposition of Mussolini\|established_date6=25 July 1943\|area_km2=3,798,000\|population_estimate=42,993,602\|population_estimate_year=1936\|currency=Italian Lira}}

	The '''Kingdom of Italy''' was a state in southern Europe. From the [[March on Rome]] in 1922 until 1943, it was under the rule of the first [[fascist]] state in history, in a historical period commonly known as '''Fascist Italy'''. While in the years from 1922–1925, the ~~regime~~ still maintained a [[Liberalism\|liberal]] façade, after 1925, it soon fully formed into a militantly [[Anti-communism\|anti-communist]] dictatorship headed by [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=Swansea University\|title=What was the impact of Fascist rule upon Italy from 1922 to 1945?\|url=https://www.swansea.ac.uk/history/history-study-guides/what-was-the-impact-of-fascist-rule-upon-italy-from-1922-to-1945/\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=Mussolini’s appointment as prime minister in October 1922 did not see the immediate institution of dictatorial rule. Characteristic of the means the Fascists had employed to come to power, Blackshirt squad violence helped to reduce the influence of parliamentary opposition without outlawing it altogether. From the start of 1925, a fascist parliamentary majority (elected in April 1924 partly thanks to fascist intimidation) was able to pass a series of laws which dismantled the institutions of liberal democracy. Denoting a decline in squad power, the regular police forces together with the OVRA secret police (created in 1927) were now entrusted with the task of rooting out political opposition and controlling the population, with the assistance of Fascist Party organizations (including the Militia).}}</ref>		The '''Kingdom of Italy''' was a state in southern Europe. From the [[March on Rome]] in 1922 until 1943, it was under the rule of the first [[fascist]] state in history, in a historical period commonly known as '''Fascist Italy'''. While in the years from 1922–1925, the régime still maintained a [[Liberalism\|liberal]] façade, after 1925, it soon fully formed into a militantly [[Anti-communism\|anti-communist]] dictatorship headed by [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=Swansea University\|title=What was the impact of Fascist rule upon Italy from 1922 to 1945?\|url=https://www.swansea.ac.uk/history/history-study-guides/what-was-the-impact-of-fascist-rule-upon-italy-from-1922-to-1945/\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=Mussolini’s appointment as prime minister in October 1922 did not see the immediate institution of dictatorial rule. Characteristic of the means the Fascists had employed to come to power, Blackshirt squad violence helped to reduce the influence of parliamentary opposition without outlawing it altogether. From the start of 1925, a fascist parliamentary majority (elected in April 1924 partly thanks to fascist intimidation) was able to pass a series of laws which dismantled the institutions of liberal democracy. Denoting a decline in squad power, the regular police forces together with the OVRA secret police (created in 1927) were now entrusted with the task of rooting out political opposition and controlling the population, with the assistance of Fascist Party organizations (including the Militia).}}</ref>

	Under the [[reactionary]] and despotic government, [[Communist party\|socialist and communist organizations]], [[Trade union\|trade unions]], and other organs of the [[working class]] saw massive repression and deprivation, with the economy being organized in accordance to the betterment of the [[Bourgeoisie\|wealthy]], at the large expense of the workers. The ~~fascist regime~~ also implemented the first modern privatization programs, as well as the mass cutting of social programs, in history.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Germa Bel\|year=2011\|title=The first privatisation: selling SOEs and privatising public monopolies in Fascist Italy (1922–1925)\|title-url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-abstract/35/5/937/1695860\|quote=Italy's first Fascist government applied a large-scale privatisation policy between 1922 and 1925. The government privatised the State monopoly of match sale, eliminated the State monopoly on life insurances, sold most of the State-owned telephone networks and services to private firms, reprivatised the largest metal machinery producer, and awarded concessions to private firms to build and operate motorways. These interventions represent one of the earliest and most decisive privatisation episodes in the Western world. While ideological considerations may have had a certain influence, privatisation was used mainly as a political tool to build confidence among industrialists and to increase support for the government and the Partito Nazionale Fascista. Privatisation also contributed to balancing the budget, which was the core objective of Fascist economic policy in its first phase.\|publisher=Cambridge Journal of Economics\|doi=https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/beq051\|volume=35\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> Fascist Italy occupied [[Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974)\|Ethiopia]] in addition to its earlier colonies of [[Somalia]] and [[Eritrea]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Stephen Gowans\|year=2018\|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom\|chapter=Imperialism\|page=58–59\|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf\|city=Montreal\|publisher=Baraka Books\|isbn=9781771861427\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref>		Under the [[reactionary]] and despotic government, [[Communist party\|socialist and communist organizations]], [[Trade union\|trade unions]], and other organs of the [[working class]] saw massive repression and deprivation, with the economy being organized in accordance to the betterment of the [[Bourgeoisie\|wealthy]], at the large expense of the workers. The Fascist régime also implemented the first modern privatization programs, as well as the mass cutting of social programs, in history.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Germa Bel\|year=2011\|title=The first privatisation: selling SOEs and privatising public monopolies in Fascist Italy (1922–1925)\|title-url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-abstract/35/5/937/1695860\|quote=Italy's first Fascist government applied a large-scale privatisation policy between 1922 and 1925. The government privatised the State monopoly of match sale, eliminated the State monopoly on life insurances, sold most of the State-owned telephone networks and services to private firms, reprivatised the largest metal machinery producer, and awarded concessions to private firms to build and operate motorways. These interventions represent one of the earliest and most decisive privatisation episodes in the Western world. While ideological considerations may have had a certain influence, privatisation was used mainly as a political tool to build confidence among industrialists and to increase support for the government and the Partito Nazionale Fascista. Privatisation also contributed to balancing the budget, which was the core objective of Fascist economic policy in its first phase.\|publisher=Cambridge Journal of Economics\|doi=https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/beq051\|volume=35\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> Fascist Italy occupied [[Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974)\|Ethiopia]] in addition to its earlier colonies of [[Somalia]] and [[Eritrea]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Stephen Gowans\|year=2018\|title=Patriots, Traitors and Empires: The Story of Korea’s Struggle for Freedom\|chapter=Imperialism\|page=58–59\|pdf=https://ipfs.io/ipfs/bafykbzaced4iiga4ngtxusr2civjxewbili5jne2sbpefbx2s3im2kphattzc?filename=Stephen%20Gowans%20-%20Patriots%2C%20Traitors%20and%20Empires_%20The%20Story%20of%20Korea%E2%80%99s%20Struggle%20for%20Freedom-Baraka%20Books%20%282018%29.pdf\|city=Montreal\|publisher=Baraka Books\|isbn=9781771861427\|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=8435F6FF91279531705764823FDC2A7F}}</ref>

	Fascist Italy allied itself with another [[Far-right politics\|extreme right]] [[capitalist]] ~~regime~~, the [[German Reich (1933–1945)\|German Reich]], and joined into the [[Second World War]] after Italian forces invaded the [[French Republic]], during the final days of the main German invasion of that nation. While seeing some territorial gains in Southern Europe in the initial part of the war, Fascist Italy would ~~later~~ prove itself to be an ~~ineffectual~~ military force, particularly in regards to the military events in [[Africa]] and [[Sicily]].		Fascist Italy allied itself with another [[Far-right politics\|extreme right]] [[capitalist]] régime, the [[German Reich (1933–1945)\|German Reich]], and joined into the [[Second World War]] after Italian forces invaded the [[French Republic]], during the final days of the main German invasion of that nation. From 1940 to mid-1943 Fascist Italy was the primary Axis power in both Africa and the Balkans.<ref>{{safesubst:citation\|author=Simon Gonsalves\|title=The Italian Army in the Second World War: A Historiographical Analysis\|title-url=https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/gljuh/vol5/iss1/2\|date=10-9-2017}}</ref> While seeing some territorial gains in Southern Europe in the initial part of the war, Fascist Italy would eventually prove itself to be an inadequate military force, particularly in regards to the military events in [[Africa]] and [[Sicily]].

	By 1943, after the [[World War II\|Allies]] had invaded mainland Italy, the long-time dictator, Benito Mussolini, was removed from power after a soft-coup. However, the ~~Germans~~ later returned him to power to lead a puppet state, known as the [[Italian Social Republic]].		By 1943, after the [[World War II\|Allies]] had invaded mainland Italy, the long-time dictator, Benito Mussolini, was removed from power after a soft-coup. However, the Third Reich later returned him to power to lead a puppet state, known as the [[Italian Social Republic]].

	[[Fascism]] in Italy ended in 1945, after Mussolini was killed, and his puppet state fell. The Kingdom of Italy itself was replaced by the modern [[Italian Republic\|Republic of Italy]] after a referendum was held.<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=historians.org\|title=The Rise and Fall of Fascism\|url=https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/gi-roundtable-series/pamphlets/em-18-what-is-the-future-of-italy-(1945)/the-rise-and-fall-of-fascism\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=The final collapse of fascism, though set off when Mussolini’s frightened lieutenants threw him overboard, was brought about by allied military victories plus the open rebellion of the people. Among the latter the strikes of industrial workers in Nazi-controlled northern Italy led the way. Nothing of this sort happened in Germany.}}</ref>		[[Fascism]] in Italy ended in 1945, after Mussolini was killed, and his puppet state fell. The Kingdom of Italy itself was replaced by the modern [[Italian Republic\|Republic of Italy]] after a referendum was held.<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=historians.org\|title=The Rise and Fall of Fascism\|url=https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/gi-roundtable-series/pamphlets/em-18-what-is-the-future-of-italy-(1945)/the-rise-and-fall-of-fascism\|retrieved=2022-7-19\|quote=The final collapse of fascism, though set off when Mussolini’s frightened lieutenants threw him overboard, was brought about by allied military victories plus the open rebellion of the people. Among the latter the strikes of industrial workers in Nazi-controlled northern Italy led the way. Nothing of this sort happened in Germany.}}</ref>