Democratic Republic of the Congo - Revision history

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	The discovery of the Ishango bone, a 20,000-year-old tool, represents a prime number sequence or a lunar calendrical system. It features groupings of notches indicating multiplication, prime numbers, and a base-10 or base-12 system, marking it as the first mathematical tool in history. Their environment demanded numeracy, record-keeping, calendrical reckoning, and cooperative labour; specifically, the river networks relied on communication and record-keeping.<ref name=":1" />		The discovery of the Ishango bone, a 20,000-year-old tool, represents a prime number sequence or a lunar calendrical system. It features groupings of notches indicating multiplication, prime numbers, and a base-10 or base-12 system, marking it as the first mathematical tool in history. Their environment demanded numeracy, record-keeping, calendrical reckoning, and cooperative labour; specifically, the river networks relied on communication and record-keeping.<ref name=":1" />
	[[File:Ishango.jpg\|thumb\|382x382px\|The Ishango bone is the world's third oldest known mathematical ~~tools~~. It dates back roughly 20,000 years, and shows prime numbers, doubling and multiplication alongside addition and subtraction. ]]		[[File:Ishango.jpg\|thumb\|382x382px\|The Ishango bone is the world's third oldest known mathematical tool. It dates back roughly 20,000 years, and shows prime numbers, doubling and multiplication alongside addition and subtraction. ]]
	These people had a fundamentally egalitarian political structure. In order to prevent a centralized authority from emerging, they divided themselves into bands which were more like clans and lineages rather than nuclear families; these bands operated through mobile camp rotations in the basin. Leadership was non-hereditary and was primarily based on experience.<ref name=":1" />		These people had a fundamentally egalitarian political structure. In order to prevent a centralized authority from emerging, they divided themselves into bands which were more like clans and lineages rather than nuclear families; these bands operated through mobile camp rotations in the basin. Leadership was non-hereditary and was primarily based on experience.<ref name=":1" />

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	The discovery of the Ishango bone, a 20,000-year-old tool, represents a prime number sequence or a lunar calendrical system. It features groupings of notches indicating multiplication, prime numbers, and a base-10 or base-12 system, marking it as the first mathematical tool in history. Their environment demanded numeracy, record-keeping, calendrical reckoning, and cooperative labour; specifically, the river networks relied on communication and record-keeping.<ref name=":1" />		The discovery of the Ishango bone, a 20,000-year-old tool, represents a prime number sequence or a lunar calendrical system. It features groupings of notches indicating multiplication, prime numbers, and a base-10 or base-12 system, marking it as the first mathematical tool in history. Their environment demanded numeracy, record-keeping, calendrical reckoning, and cooperative labour; specifically, the river networks relied on communication and record-keeping.<ref name=":1" />
			[[File:Ishango.jpg\|thumb\|382x382px\|The Ishango bone is the world's third oldest known mathematical tools. It dates back roughly 20,000 years, and shows prime numbers, doubling and multiplication alongside addition and subtraction. ]]
	These people had a fundamentally egalitarian political structure. In order to prevent a centralized authority from emerging, they divided themselves into bands which were more like clans and lineages rather than nuclear families; these bands operated through mobile camp rotations in the basin. Leadership was non-hereditary and was primarily based on experience.<ref name=":1" />		These people had a fundamentally egalitarian political structure. In order to prevent a centralized authority from emerging, they divided themselves into bands which were more like clans and lineages rather than nuclear families; these bands operated through mobile camp rotations in the basin. Leadership was non-hereditary and was primarily based on experience.<ref name=":1" />

	They only had an egalitarian political structure as their productive forces had not yet begun to appropriate surplus, nor a separate ruling class had not emerged yet. Leadership was primarily based on experience and competence.<ref name=":1" />		They only had an egalitarian political structure as their productive forces had not yet begun to appropriate surplus, nor a separate ruling class had not emerged yet. Leadership was primarily based on experience and competence.<ref name=":1" />
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	==== Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1885) ====		==== Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1885) ====
			[[File:King Alvaro I.webp\|thumb\|375x375px\|Copper engraving depicting King Garcia II of Kongo receiving an Dutch embassy in 1642.]]
	Before European imperialism, from around the year 1390 CE, the region that would become the modern-Democratic Republic of the Congo was under the rule of a centralised monarchical state, known by modern historians as the Kingdom of Kongo. Based from the city of Mbanza (in what is now [[Republic of Angola\|Angola]]),<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=Kingdom of Kongo 1390 – 1914\|date=2016-5-18\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914\|retrieved=2022-7-24\|quote=The Kingdom of Kongo was a large kingdom in the western part of central Africa. The name comes from the fact that the founders of the kingdom were KiKongo speaking people, and the spelling of Congo with a C comes from the Portuguese translation. Kingdom was founded around 1390 CE through the political marriage of Nima a Nzima, of the Mpemba Kasi, and Luqueni Luansanze, of the Mbata, which cemented the alliance between the two KiKongo speaking peoples. The Kingdom would reach its peak in the mid 1600s. The Kingdom of Kongo would eventually fall to scheming nobles, feuding royal factions, and the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, initiating its eventual decline.		Before European imperialism, from around the year 1390 CE, the region that would become the modern-Democratic Republic of the Congo was under the rule of a centralised monarchical state, known by modern historians as the Kingdom of Kongo. Based from the city of Mbanza (in what is now [[Republic of Angola\|Angola]]),<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=Kingdom of Kongo 1390 – 1914\|date=2016-5-18\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914\|retrieved=2022-7-24\|quote=The Kingdom of Kongo was a large kingdom in the western part of central Africa. The name comes from the fact that the founders of the kingdom were KiKongo speaking people, and the spelling of Congo with a C comes from the Portuguese translation. Kingdom was founded around 1390 CE through the political marriage of Nima a Nzima, of the Mpemba Kasi, and Luqueni Luansanze, of the Mbata, which cemented the alliance between the two KiKongo speaking peoples. The Kingdom would reach its peak in the mid 1600s. The Kingdom of Kongo would eventually fall to scheming nobles, feuding royal factions, and the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, initiating its eventual decline.

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	The smaller states of Vungu, Kakongo, and Ngoyo, which controlled the river bays and Atlantic trade routes, were part of a broader network of trade and diplomatic marriage alliances. This network initiated the transition from lineage-based chiefdoms into consolidated kingdoms as a response to population pressure and commodity flows. Increased population density fostered specialized artisans and intensified territorial competition between the kingdoms. Long-distance trade in commodities such as iron, copper, firearms, and salt required coordinated production, transport, and dispute settlement. Marriage alliances served as tools for reproducing class relations and ensuring that property was passed down through familial lines.<ref name=":4" />		The smaller states of Vungu, Kakongo, and Ngoyo, which controlled the river bays and Atlantic trade routes, were part of a broader network of trade and diplomatic marriage alliances. This network initiated the transition from lineage-based chiefdoms into consolidated kingdoms as a response to population pressure and commodity flows. Increased population density fostered specialized artisans and intensified territorial competition between the kingdoms. Long-distance trade in commodities such as iron, copper, firearms, and salt required coordinated production, transport, and dispute settlement. Marriage alliances served as tools for reproducing class relations and ensuring that property was passed down through familial lines.<ref name=":4" />

	In the late 1300s, the political balance among these kingdoms was disrupted by Lukeni lua Nimi, a formidable prince from the Mpemba Kasi federation north of the Congo River. Competition over resources and tribute was rife during this period. Recognizing the immense wealth generated by coastal and inland trade networks, Lukeni gathered a loyal following of soldiers, warriors, and political allies, aiming to consolidate control over the fragmented trade routes in order to appropriate the surplus.<ref name=":4" />

	In the 1300s, the Seven Kingdoms were disturbed by Lukeni lua Nimi, Prince of the Mpemba Kasi Kingdom as he recognized the wealth being generated by these coastal and inland trade networks, he gathered soldiers and political allies attempting to consolidate control over these trade routes so as to appropriate the surplus, competition over resources and tribute was rife during this period.<ref name=":4" />		In the 1300s, the Seven Kingdoms were disturbed by Lukeni lua Nimi, Prince of the Mpemba Kasi Kingdom as he recognized the wealth being generated by these coastal and inland trade networks, he gathered soldiers and political allies attempting to consolidate control over these trade routes so as to appropriate the surplus, competition over resources and tribute was rife during this period.<ref name=":4" />

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	* '''Kabambian 1300 CE''': Standardised copper cross currency (handa); transition to Luba Empire; economic integration and the formalisation of divine kingship.		* '''Kabambian 1300 CE''': Standardised copper cross currency (handa); transition to Luba Empire; economic integration and the formalisation of divine kingship.

			==== Mangbetu and Zande Kingdoms ====
			The northern and north-eastern borders of the Democratic Republic of the Congo were shaped by population pressures and trade routes from expanding states in the north and east. These dynamics created openings that facilitated the spread of Central Sudanic- and Ubangian-speaking populations. Their artistic traditions and politics reflected the interplay of long-distance trade in firearms, salt, ivory, and kola alongside their emergent class relations. Through their mercantile practices, these newer populations created an emergent elite within the basin. The Mangbetu and the Zande people established two kingdoms within this region.<ref name=":3">“Mangbetu \| Encyclopedia.com.” 2026. Encyclopedia.com. 2026. <nowiki>https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mangbetu</nowiki>.</ref>

			The Mangbetu kingdoms were one of these Central Sudanic-speaking populations that formed the new aristocracy mentioned above. They originated in southern Sudan and migrated further south around 1000 CE, entering the basin and establishing control over key trade routes. They taxed the movement of goods and brought with them artisanal specializations, notably pottery and hornworking, alongside their unique Mangbetu art. This enabled them to create a centralized aristocratic kingdom, and their authority was cemented and stabilized to continue appropriating surplus value from these key trade routes within the basin.<ref name=":3" />

			The Zande (or Azande) kingdoms were military chiefdoms that followed an expansionist model. These chiefdoms secured access to war captives, collected tribute, and protected trade corridors within the basin. Over time, this accumulation formed the basis of aristocratic power. By institutionalizing the poison oracle and centralizing associated beliefs, they regulated class conflict and legitimized ruling-class decisions through faith in the oracle and mangu (witchcraft). Through witchcraft accusations and the oracle, they channeled interpersonal conflict, concealed class antagonisms, and ensured the extraction of wealth.<ref>“Zande People \| Social Sciences and Humanities \| Research Starters \| EBSCO Research.” 2024. EBSCO. 2024. <nowiki>https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/zande-people</nowiki>.</ref>

			'''Mangbetu''': The Mangbetu were a centralized union of aristocratic kingdoms with sacred status symbols, such as leopard skins, and secret societies. These institutions functioned as tools for class reproduction. The leopard skins and the secret Nebeli societies created ritual barriers that separated the ruling class from the workers in order to reinforce the hierarchy.

			'''Zande''': The Zande kingdoms were a coalition of military chiefdoms, with each chiefdom controlling a province. This structure delegated authority to each chief to extract the surplus of each territory, representing a form of bureaucratic differentiation. Their reverence for the poison oracle served as a way to legitimize ruling-class decisions through a spiritual veil. Furthermore, their concepts of witchcraft functioned to naturalize inequality and discipline subordinate populations within the kingdoms.

			==== Seven Kingdoms ====
			By the 13th century, the western Congo Basin had coalesced into primary political formations that would serve as the structural predecessors to the Kingdom of Kongo.<ref name=":4">Ducret, Nicolas. 2023. “History of the Congo - Part 1: Precolonial Times - Expeditions Ducret.” Expeditions Ducret. December 14, 2023. <nowiki>https://www.expeditions-ducret.com/history-congo-part-1-precolonial-times/</nowiki>.</ref>

			* '''Kongo dia Nlaza''': The "Seven Kingdoms," including Nsundi, Mbata, and Mpangu, were considered the oldest and most powerful of these entities. They were economically founded on the production of fine cloth and were eventually integrated into the central Kongo state in the 16th century.

			* '''Mpemba''': This kingdom stretched from the Congo River into northern Angola, centered on the Mpemba Kasi region. It was from this kingdom that the legendary founder of Kongo, Lukeni lua Nimi, would launch his unification campaign.

			By the 13th century, the Seven Kingdoms in the Congo were the oldest and most powerful entities, eventually being absorbed by the Kingdom of Kongo. These kingdoms and other states within the basin began shifting in response to higher agricultural yields, increased production of raffia cloth, and intensified long-distance trade with the Atlantic Ocean. These developments created increased pressure for the Seven Kingdoms to stabilize their surplus extraction.<ref name=":4" />

			Specifically, Mbata within the Seven Kingdoms was a textile superpower, and its economy was founded on the production of fine cloth. With reports indicating approximately 100,000 meters of cloth exported annually, textile production became the backbone of regional power. Control of this industry generated wealth for both the artisans and the ruling class within these networks of exchange.<ref name=":4" />

			The smaller states of Vungu, Kakongo, and Ngoyo, which controlled the river bays and Atlantic trade routes, were part of a broader network of trade and diplomatic marriage alliances. This network initiated the transition from lineage-based chiefdoms into consolidated kingdoms as a response to population pressure and commodity flows. Increased population density fostered specialized artisans and intensified territorial competition between the kingdoms. Long-distance trade in commodities such as iron, copper, firearms, and salt required coordinated production, transport, and dispute settlement. Marriage alliances served as tools for reproducing class relations and ensuring that property was passed down through familial lines.<ref name=":4" />

			In the late 1300s, the political balance among these kingdoms was disrupted by Lukeni lua Nimi, a formidable prince from the Mpemba Kasi federation north of the Congo River. Competition over resources and tribute was rife during this period. Recognizing the immense wealth generated by coastal and inland trade networks, Lukeni gathered a loyal following of soldiers, warriors, and political allies, aiming to consolidate control over the fragmented trade routes in order to appropriate the surplus.<ref name=":4" />

			In the 1300s, the Seven Kingdoms were disturbed by Lukeni lua Nimi, Prince of the Mpemba Kasi Kingdom as he recognized the wealth being generated by these coastal and inland trade networks, he gathered soldiers and political allies attempting to consolidate control over these trade routes so as to appropriate the surplus, competition over resources and tribute was rife during this period.<ref name=":4" />

			Prince Lukeni lua Nimi launched a military campaign across the Congo River into the Ambundu Kingdom. He captured King Mwene Kabunga, known as the kitomi (spiritual earth priest), and through this capture, he claimed Kabunga's spiritual authority. He legitimized his occupation by allowing Kabunga’s descendants to retain their spiritual role. By integrating himself into Ambundu culture and religion, he stabilized his rule.<ref name=":4" />

			Following this military and spiritual campaign, Lukeni established a new central capital on a highly defensible limestone plateau called Mbanza Kongo (later renamed São Salvador by colonialists and reclaimed as Mbanza Kongo after Angolan independence). The plateau was strategically brilliant: it was well-watered, protected from disease-carrying tsetse flies, and, most importantly, sat directly at the intersection of major trade routes connecting the coast, the Malebo Pool, and the copper-rich interior. The location enabled strict control over tribute and administration, which was essential for the reproduction of the state. Lukeni knew that military conquest alone could not hold a massive territory together. He utilized diplomacy to absorb the remaining powerful federations, a strategy necessary to reduce militarization costs and stabilize surplus extraction.<ref name=":4" />

			Prince Lukeni struck an alliance with the King of Mbata through a diplomatic marriage, ensuring that the Mbata king held a permanent privileged position as a ceremonial grandfather to Lukeni. Through a combination of submission, strategic marriages, and intimidation, Lukeni absorbed the kingdoms of Nsundi, Mpangu, and other coastal polities into the sphere of the new capital.<ref name=":4" />

			With the capital established and the major federations united under a single political banner, Lukeni lua Nimi took the title of Mwene Kongo (or Manikongo), roughly translating to "Lord of Kongo." The former independent federations and chiefdoms were officially reorganized into the six core provinces of the new empire: Mpemba, Mbata, Nsundi, Mpangu, Mbamba, and Soyo. This structure ensured that these provinces no longer fought over trade routes; instead, they sent a portion of their regional wealth (nzimbu shells, raffia cloth, copper, and ivory) as tribute to Lord Lukeni lua Nimi in Mbanza Kongo, officially establishing the Kingdom of Kongo.<ref name=":4" />

	==== Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1885) ====		==== Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1885) ====

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	As the climate became wetter, it promoted vector-borne diseases, and some scholars suggest a link to the Justinian Plague, as the Yersinia pestis bacteria has ancient roots in Central Africa. This plague led to the near extinction of communities in the Congo Basin for approximately four hundred years. In affected Mediterranean regions, the plague killed 60% of the population; researchers believe a similar mortality rate may have occurred in Central Africa. Within the basin, the sudden death of up to 60% of the population reversed levels of social complexity and destroyed the specialized divisions of labour. Knowledge of metallurgy, weaving, and architecture vanished.<ref name=":2" />		As the climate became wetter, it promoted vector-borne diseases, and some scholars suggest a link to the Justinian Plague, as the Yersinia pestis bacteria has ancient roots in Central Africa. This plague led to the near extinction of communities in the Congo Basin for approximately four hundred years. In affected Mediterranean regions, the plague killed 60% of the population; researchers believe a similar mortality rate may have occurred in Central Africa. Within the basin, the sudden death of up to 60% of the population reversed levels of social complexity and destroyed the specialized divisions of labour. Knowledge of metallurgy, weaving, and architecture vanished.<ref name=":2" />

	It was only resettled around 1,000 CE and these new incoming populations ~~encounter~~ the remaining and the synthesis of their practices ~~produce~~ new property forms and relations, alongside language which follows the material transformation and these newer populations are the ancestors of the modern Bantu language spoken in the DRC today, as almost all of the original population ~~was~~ erased by the Justinian plague in 500 BCE.<ref name=":2" />		It was only resettled around 1,000 CE and these new incoming populations encountered the remaining population and the synthesis of their practices produced new property forms and relations, alongside language which follows the material transformation and these newer populations are the ancestors of the modern Bantu language spoken in the DRC today, as almost all of the original population were erased by the Justinian plague in 500 BCE.<ref name=":2" />

	==== Upemba Civilization ====		==== Upemba Civilization ====
	The Upemba Civilization was located in the southeastern Katanga region and is the most comprehensive archeological laboratory for its social stratification and state formation in pre-colonial Congo. It was different from the decentralized riverine trading societies of the Congo basin, as their copper and control over the trade networks generated economic centralisation and political institutions, their elites consolidating political power through ~~diine~~ kingship and mystifying and sacralizing metallurgy. The Upemba societies established a "long-range commercial net" extending over 1,500 km to the Indian Ocean, trading ivory and copper for cowrie shells and glass beads and receiving glass and glazed pottery from Persia, glass beads from India, cowrie shells from the maldives and chinese porcelain.<ref>Nikis, Nicolas. 2021. “Upemba Depression.” The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, October, 1–7. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00629</nowiki>.</ref>		The Upemba Civilization was located in the southeastern Katanga region and is the most comprehensive archeological laboratory for its social stratification and state formation in pre-colonial Congo. It was different from the decentralized riverine trading societies of the Congo basin, as their copper and control over the trade networks generated economic centralisation and political institutions, their elites consolidating political power through divine kingship and mystifying and sacralizing metallurgy. The Upemba societies established a "long-range commercial net" extending over 1,500 km to the Indian Ocean, trading ivory and copper for cowrie shells and glass beads and receiving glass and glazed pottery from Persia, glass beads from India, cowrie shells from the maldives and chinese porcelain.<ref>Nikis, Nicolas. 2021. “Upemba Depression.” The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, October, 1–7. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00629</nowiki>.</ref>

	The progression of Upemba society is marked by four distinct archaeological periods:<ref name=":2" />		The progression of Upemba society is marked by four distinct archaeological periods:<ref name=":2" />

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	The Kingdom was centered around the great city of Mbanza Kongo, located in what is now northern Angola, (location: 6°16′04″S 14°14′53″E), which was later renamed to São Salvador.}}</ref> the Kingdom of Kongo likely formed from a single, smaller realm, that later would form into a commonwealth of city-states, headed by a single centralized authority. The Kingdom of Kongo would reach its economic and political height during the 16th century CE, gaining a large amount of economic wealth via its part in the, at the time, growing [[Transatlantic Slave Trade]].		The Kingdom was centered around the great city of Mbanza Kongo, located in what is now northern Angola, (location: 6°16′04″S 14°14′53″E), which was later renamed to São Salvador.}}</ref> the Kingdom of Kongo likely formed from a single, smaller realm, that later would form into a commonwealth of city-states, headed by a single centralized authority. The Kingdom of Kongo would reach its economic and political height during the 16th century CE, gaining a large amount of economic wealth via its part in the, at the time, growing [[Transatlantic Slave Trade]].

	The Kingdom of Kongo would later decline, likely do to internal instability among its [[ruling class]], and would ultimately become victim to European expansionism.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Thornton\|year=2001\|title=The Origins and Early History of the Kingdom of Kongo, c. 1350-1550\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3097288\|page=89-120\|publisher=Boston University African Studies Center\|doi=https://doi.org/10.2307/3097288\|volume=34\|trans-lang=English}}</ref>		The Kingdom of Kongo would later decline, likely due to internal instability among its [[ruling class]], and would ultimately become victim to European expansionism.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Thornton\|year=2001\|title=The Origins and Early History of the Kingdom of Kongo, c. 1350-1550\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3097288\|page=89-120\|publisher=Boston University African Studies Center\|doi=https://doi.org/10.2307/3097288\|volume=34\|trans-lang=English}}</ref>

	=== Congo Free State (1885–1908) ===		=== Congo Free State (1885–1908) ===
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	In 1977, [[Jimmy Carter]] airlifted [[Kingdom of Morocco\|Moroccan]] troops to Zaire to put down a rebellion.<ref name=":12" />		In 1977, [[Jimmy Carter]] airlifted [[Kingdom of Morocco\|Moroccan]] troops to Zaire to put down a rebellion.<ref name=":12" />

	The fascist regime ended in the late 1990s, during the [[First Congo War]], when after a large withdrawal of NATO support, major ethnic tensions, and foreign intervention, Mobutu's dictatorship was overthrown, and the country was ~~remained~~ to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with a bourgeois-democratic government being created.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Peter Abbott\|year=2014\|title=Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j6ajCwAAQBAJ\|quote=n the 1970s, during the ruinous 30-year dictatorship of General Mobutu, periodic rebellions required the hasty insertion once again of Belgian and French paratroops to save European lives. From the mid-1990s the country split again, becoming the battleground for the largest African war in history, as armies and rebel groups from Rwanda, Angola, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Namibia and other countries crossed into the Congo to support one side or the other, or simply to loot the rich resources. Major operations ended – or paused – in 2002, but the old hatreds and constant lure of the Congo's natural resources continue to boil over into periodic outbreaks.\|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing\|isbn=9781782000778\|trans-lang=English}}</ref>		The fascist regime ended in the late 1990s, during the [[First Congo War]], when after a large withdrawal of NATO support, major ethnic tensions, and foreign intervention, Mobutu's dictatorship was overthrown, and the country was renamed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with a bourgeois-democratic government being created.<ref>{{Citation\|author=Peter Abbott\|year=2014\|title=Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j6ajCwAAQBAJ\|quote=n the 1970s, during the ruinous 30-year dictatorship of General Mobutu, periodic rebellions required the hasty insertion once again of Belgian and French paratroops to save European lives. From the mid-1990s the country split again, becoming the battleground for the largest African war in history, as armies and rebel groups from Rwanda, Angola, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Namibia and other countries crossed into the Congo to support one side or the other, or simply to loot the rich resources. Major operations ended – or paused – in 2002, but the old hatreds and constant lure of the Congo's natural resources continue to boil over into periodic outbreaks.\|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing\|isbn=9781782000778\|trans-lang=English}}</ref>

	=== Congo Wars (1997–present) ===		=== Congo Wars (1997–present) ===

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	The '''Democratic Republic of the Congo''', colloquially known as '''Congo-Kinshasa''', '''DR Congo''', '''the DRC''', is a nation in [[Africa]]. It is the largest country in Central Africa, and the second largest in [[Africa]] in general. The DRC shares a border with the [[Republic of the Congo]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]], [[Angola]], and [[South Sudan]].		The '''Democratic Republic of the Congo''', colloquially known as '''Congo-Kinshasa''', '''DR Congo''', '''the DRC''', is a nation in [[Africa]]. It is the largest country in Central Africa, and the second largest in [[Africa]] in general. The DRC shares a border with the [[Republic of the Congo]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]], [[Angola]], and [[South Sudan]].

	The Democratic Republic of the Congo has historically been the victim of [[Europe\|Western]] [[imperialism]] and [[colonialism]]. From 1885 to 1908, the area which would be the modern DRC was under the brutal and [[Genocide\|genocidal]] rule of the so-called "[[Congo Free State]]", which was under the despotic absentee-control of the [[Belgian]] [[Leopold II of Belgium\|Leopold II]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Adam Hochschild\|year=1998\|title=King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books/about/King_Leopold_s_Ghost.html?id=VLuKAAAAMAAJ\|publisher=Houghton Mifflin\|isbn=9780395759240\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> In modern times, the Democratic Republic of the Congo continues to suffer from economic exploitation and unequal exchange, with ~~atleast~~ twenty-five mining corporations, often of [[Canada\|Anglo-]][[United States of America\|American]] or [[European Union\|European]] ~~orgin~~.		The Democratic Republic of the Congo has historically been the victim of [[Europe\|Western]] [[imperialism]] and [[colonialism]]. From 1885 to 1908, the area which would be the modern DRC was under the brutal and [[Genocide\|genocidal]] rule of the so-called "[[Congo Free State]]", which was under the despotic absentee-control of the [[Belgian]] [[Leopold II of Belgium\|Leopold II]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Adam Hochschild\|year=1998\|title=King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books/about/King_Leopold_s_Ghost.html?id=VLuKAAAAMAAJ\|publisher=Houghton Mifflin\|isbn=9780395759240\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> In modern times, the Democratic Republic of the Congo continues to suffer from economic exploitation and unequal exchange, with at least twenty-five mining corporations, often of [[Canada\|Anglo-]][[United States of America\|American]] or [[European Union\|European]] origin.

	The Democratic Republic of the Congo is presently a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], the [[African Union]], the [[East African Community]], the [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]], the [[Southern African Development Community]], and the [[Economic Community of Central African States]]. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is also projected to be a part of the [[East African Federation]], should it form.<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=eac.int\|title=Quick Facts about EAC\|url=https://www.eac.int/eac-quick-facts\|retrieved=2022-7-23\|quote=8 April 2022		The Democratic Republic of the Congo is presently a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], the [[African Union]], the [[East African Community]], the [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]], the [[Southern African Development Community]], and the [[Economic Community of Central African States]]. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is also projected to be a part of the [[East African Federation]], should it form.<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=eac.int\|title=Quick Facts about EAC\|url=https://www.eac.int/eac-quick-facts\|retrieved=2022-7-23\|quote=8 April 2022
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	Before European imperialism, from around the year 1390 CE, the region that would become the modern-Democratic Republic of the Congo was under the rule of a centralised monarchical state, known by modern historians as the Kingdom of Kongo. Based from the city of Mbanza (in what is now [[Republic of Angola\|Angola]]),<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=Kingdom of Kongo 1390 – 1914\|date=2016-5-18\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914\|retrieved=2022-7-24\|quote=The Kingdom of Kongo was a large kingdom in the western part of central Africa. The name comes from the fact that the founders of the kingdom were KiKongo speaking people, and the spelling of Congo with a C comes from the Portuguese translation. Kingdom was founded around 1390 CE through the political marriage of Nima a Nzima, of the Mpemba Kasi, and Luqueni Luansanze, of the Mbata, which cemented the alliance between the two KiKongo speaking peoples. The Kingdom would reach its peak in the mid 1600s. The Kingdom of Kongo would eventually fall to scheming nobles, feuding royal factions, and the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, initiating its eventual decline.		Before European imperialism, from around the year 1390 CE, the region that would become the modern-Democratic Republic of the Congo was under the rule of a centralised monarchical state, known by modern historians as the Kingdom of Kongo. Based from the city of Mbanza (in what is now [[Republic of Angola\|Angola]]),<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=South African History Online\|title=Kingdom of Kongo 1390 – 1914\|date=2016-5-18\|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914\|retrieved=2022-7-24\|quote=The Kingdom of Kongo was a large kingdom in the western part of central Africa. The name comes from the fact that the founders of the kingdom were KiKongo speaking people, and the spelling of Congo with a C comes from the Portuguese translation. Kingdom was founded around 1390 CE through the political marriage of Nima a Nzima, of the Mpemba Kasi, and Luqueni Luansanze, of the Mbata, which cemented the alliance between the two KiKongo speaking peoples. The Kingdom would reach its peak in the mid 1600s. The Kingdom of Kongo would eventually fall to scheming nobles, feuding royal factions, and the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, initiating its eventual decline.

	The Kingdom was centered around the great city of Mbanza Kongo, located in what is now northern Angola, (location: 6°16′04″S 14°14′53″E), which was later renamed to São Salvador.}}</ref> the Kingdom of Kongo likely formed from a single, smaller realm, that later would form into a commonwealth of city-states, headed by a single centralized authority. The Kingdom of Kongo would reach its economic and political ~~hight~~ during the 16th century CE, gaining a large amount of economic wealth via its part in the, at the time, growing [[Transatlantic Slave Trade]].		The Kingdom was centered around the great city of Mbanza Kongo, located in what is now northern Angola, (location: 6°16′04″S 14°14′53″E), which was later renamed to São Salvador.}}</ref> the Kingdom of Kongo likely formed from a single, smaller realm, that later would form into a commonwealth of city-states, headed by a single centralized authority. The Kingdom of Kongo would reach its economic and political height during the 16th century CE, gaining a large amount of economic wealth via its part in the, at the time, growing [[Transatlantic Slave Trade]].

	The Kingdom of Kongo would later decline, likely do to internal instability among its [[ruling class]], and would ultimately become victim to European expansionism.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Thornton\|year=2001\|title=The Origins and Early History of the Kingdom of Kongo, c. 1350-1550\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3097288\|page=89-120\|publisher=Boston University African Studies Center\|doi=https://doi.org/10.2307/3097288\|volume=34\|trans-lang=English}}</ref>		The Kingdom of Kongo would later decline, likely do to internal instability among its [[ruling class]], and would ultimately become victim to European expansionism.<ref>{{Citation\|author=John Thornton\|year=2001\|title=The Origins and Early History of the Kingdom of Kongo, c. 1350-1550\|title-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3097288\|page=89-120\|publisher=Boston University African Studies Center\|doi=https://doi.org/10.2307/3097288\|volume=34\|trans-lang=English}}</ref>

GrainEater: Punctuation

2025-02-19T22:06:59Z

Punctuation

← Older revision		Revision as of 22:06, 19 February 2025
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	The '''Democratic Republic of the Congo''', colloquially known as '''Congo-Kinshasa''', '''DR Congo''', '''the DRC''', is a nation in [[Africa]]. It is the largest country in Central Africa, and the second largest in [[Africa]] in general. The DRC shares a border with the [[Republic of the Congo]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]], [[Angola]], and [[South Sudan]].		The '''Democratic Republic of the Congo''', colloquially known as '''Congo-Kinshasa''', '''DR Congo''', '''the DRC''', is a nation in [[Africa]]. It is the largest country in Central Africa, and the second largest in [[Africa]] in general. The DRC shares a border with the [[Republic of the Congo]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]], [[Angola]], and [[South Sudan]].

	The Democratic Republic of the Congo has historically been the victim of [[Europe\|Western]] [[imperialism]] and [[colonialism]]. From 1885 to 1908, the area which would be the modern DRC was under the brutal and [[Genocide\|genocidal]] rule of the so-called "[[Congo Free State]]", which was under the despotic absentee-control of the [[Belgian]] [[Leopold II of Belgium\|Leopold II]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Adam Hochschild\|year=1998\|title=King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books/about/King_Leopold_s_Ghost.html?id=VLuKAAAAMAAJ\|publisher=Houghton Mifflin\|isbn=9780395759240\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> In modern times, the Democratic Republic of the Congo continues to suffer from economic exploitation and unequal exchange, with atleast twenty-five mining corporations, often of [[Canada\|Anglo-]][[United States of America\|American]], [[European Union\|European]] orgin.		The Democratic Republic of the Congo has historically been the victim of [[Europe\|Western]] [[imperialism]] and [[colonialism]]. From 1885 to 1908, the area which would be the modern DRC was under the brutal and [[Genocide\|genocidal]] rule of the so-called "[[Congo Free State]]", which was under the despotic absentee-control of the [[Belgian]] [[Leopold II of Belgium\|Leopold II]].<ref>{{Citation\|author=Adam Hochschild\|year=1998\|title=King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa\|title-url=https://books.google.com/books/about/King_Leopold_s_Ghost.html?id=VLuKAAAAMAAJ\|publisher=Houghton Mifflin\|isbn=9780395759240\|trans-lang=English}}</ref> In modern times, the Democratic Republic of the Congo continues to suffer from economic exploitation and unequal exchange, with atleast twenty-five mining corporations, often of [[Canada\|Anglo-]][[United States of America\|American]] or [[European Union\|European]] orgin.

	The Democratic Republic of the Congo is presently a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], the [[African Union]], the [[East African Community]], the [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]], the [[Southern African Development Community]], and the [[Economic Community of Central African States]]. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is also projected to be a part of the [[East African Federation]], should it form.<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=eac.int\|title=Quick Facts about EAC\|url=https://www.eac.int/eac-quick-facts\|retrieved=2022-7-23\|quote=8 April 2022		The Democratic Republic of the Congo is presently a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], the [[African Union]], the [[East African Community]], the [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]], the [[Southern African Development Community]], and the [[Economic Community of Central African States]]. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is also projected to be a part of the [[East African Federation]], should it form.<ref>{{News citation\|newspaper=eac.int\|title=Quick Facts about EAC\|url=https://www.eac.int/eac-quick-facts\|retrieved=2022-7-23\|quote=8 April 2022

2605:C840:805:7AB0:DF17:A706:23FA:5D53: smellcheck

2025-02-14T05:54:26Z

smellcheck

← Older revision		Revision as of 05:54, 14 February 2025
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	{{Infobox country\|name=Democratic Republic of the Congo\|native_name=République démocratique du Congo<br>Repubilika ya Kôngo ya Dimokalasi<br>Republíki ya Kongó Demokratíki<br>Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo<br>Ditunga dia Kongu wa Mungalaata\|image_flag=Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.png\|image_coat=Coat of Arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.png\|capital=Kinshasa\|mode_of_production=Semi-feudalism\|government_type=Unitary ~~Bourgeois Republic~~\|leader_title1=President\|leader_name1=Félix Tshisekedi\|leader_title2=Prime Minister\|leader_name2=Jean-Michel Sama Lukonde\|motto=Justice – Paix – Travail\|image_map=Map of DR Congo.png\|official_languages=French<br>Kituba<br>Lingala<br>Swahili<br>Luba-Kasai\|established_event1=Kingdom of Kongo\|established_date1=~1390 CE\|established_event2=Belgian colonization begins\|established_date2=17 November 1879\|established_event3=Congo Free State forms\|established_date3=1 July 1885\|established_event4=Independence from Belgium\|established_date4=30 June 1960\|established_event5=Republic of Zaire forms\|established_date5=27 October 1971\|established_event6=Bourgeois democracy established\|established_date6=30 July 2006\|area_km2=2,345,409\|population_estimate=108,407,721\|population_estimate_year=2022\|currency=Congolese franc}}{{Distinguish\|the [[Republic of the Congo]], a neighbouring country}}		{{Infobox country\|name=Democratic Republic of the Congo\|native_name=République démocratique du Congo<br>Repubilika ya Kôngo ya Dimokalasi<br>Republíki ya Kongó Demokratíki<br>Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo<br>Ditunga dia Kongu wa Mungalaata\|image_flag=Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.png\|image_coat=Coat of Arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.png\|capital=Kinshasa\|mode_of_production=Semi-feudalism\|government_type=Unitary semi-presidential republic under a [[dictatorship of the bourgeoisie]]\|leader_title1=President\|leader_name1=Félix Tshisekedi\|leader_title2=Prime Minister\|leader_name2=Jean-Michel Sama Lukonde\|motto=Justice – Paix – Travail\|image_map=Map of DR Congo.png\|official_languages=French<br>Kituba<br>Lingala<br>Swahili<br>Luba-Kasai\|established_event1=Kingdom of Kongo\|established_date1=~1390 CE\|established_event2=Belgian colonization begins\|established_date2=17 November 1879\|established_event3=Congo Free State forms\|established_date3=1 July 1885\|established_event4=Independence from Belgium\|established_date4=30 June 1960\|established_event5=Republic of Zaire forms\|established_date5=27 October 1971\|established_event6=Bourgeois democracy established\|established_date6=30 July 2006\|area_km2=2,345,409\|population_estimate=108,407,721\|population_estimate_year=2022\|currency=Congolese franc}}{{Distinguish\|the [[Republic of the Congo]], a neighbouring country}}

	The '''Democratic Republic of the Congo''', colloquially known as '''Congo-Kinshasa''', '''DR Congo''', '''the DRC''', is a nation in [[Africa]]. It is the largest country in Central Africa, and the second largest in [[Africa]] in general. The DRC shares a border with the [[Republic of the Congo]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]], [[Angola]], and [[South Sudan]].		The '''Democratic Republic of the Congo''', colloquially known as '''Congo-Kinshasa''', '''DR Congo''', '''the DRC''', is a nation in [[Africa]]. It is the largest country in Central Africa, and the second largest in [[Africa]] in general. The DRC shares a border with the [[Republic of the Congo]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]], [[Angola]], and [[South Sudan]].