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Topic:X6z47nbyv8zhgy77

2022-11-15T19:14:33Z

GheorgheCraciun (talk | contribs) commented on "Brazil" (I agree, I've added sources for each period. The reason I prefer longer paragraphs and more information is I don't expect anyone to add m...)

Federative Republic of Brazil

2022-11-15T19:11:50Z

GheorgheCraciun:

{{Infobox country
| name = Federative Republic of Brazil
| native_name = República Federativa do Brasil
| image_flag = File:Flag of Brazil.svg
| image_coat = File:Coat of arms of Brazil.svg
| image_map = Brazil (ortographic projection).svg
| map_width = 220px
| capital = Brasília
| largest_city = São Paulo
| government_type = [[Federation|Federal]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[Bourgeois state|bourgeois state]]
| established_event1 = Proclamation of the Empire of Brazil
| established_date1 = 1822 September 7th
| established_event2 = Proclamation of the Republic of Brazil
| established_date2 = 1889 November 15th
| established_event3 = US-backed right-wing military dictatorship
| established_date3 = 1964 April 1st
| established_event4 = Redemocratization
| established_date4 = 1985 March 15th
| population_estimate = 211,755,692<ref>Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (2020). [https://www.in.gov.br/web/dou/-/portaria-n-pr-254-de-25-de-agosto-de-2020-274382852 Estimates published in official government documents].</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2020
| labour_force = 86.621 million<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy">CIA World Factbook (2020). ''[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/#economy Brazil – The world factbook (economy)]''</ref>
| labour_force_participation = 56.8%<ref>Trading economics (2021). ''[https://tradingeconomics.com/brazil/labor-force-participation-rate Brazil labor force participation rate]'' </ref>
| labour_occupation = agriculture: 9.4% industry: 32.1% services: 58.5%<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| unemployment = 14.7%<ref>Trading economics (2021). ''[https://tradingeconomics.com/brazil/unemployment-rate Brazil unemployment rate]'' </ref>
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 = Jair Bolsonaro
| leader_title2 = President of the Chamber of Deputies
| leader_name2 = Arthur Lira
| leader_title3 = President of the Federal Senate
| leader_name3 = Rodrigo Pacheco
| leader_title4 = President of the Supreme Federal Court
| leader_name4 = Luiz Fux
| GDP_nominal_year = 2019
| GDP_nominal = US$1.84 trillion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=BR GDP (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = US$8,717.18<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=BR GDP per capita (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| export_year = 2019
| export = US$263 billion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.CD?locations=BR Exports of goods and services (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| export_commodities = soybeans, crude petroleum, iron, corn, wood pulp products<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| export_partners = [[People's Republic of China|China]] (28%), [[United States of America|United States]] (13%)<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| import_year = 2019
| import = US$269 billion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.IMP.GNFS.CD?locations=BR Imports of goods and services (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| import_commodities = refined petroleum, vehicle parts, crude petroleum, integrated circuits, pesticides<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| import_partners = [[People's Republic of China|China]] (21%), [[United States of America|United States]] (18%), [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]] (6%)
| external_debt = US$684.6 billion
| external_debt_rank = 20th
| Gini = 53.9%
| Gini_year = 2018
| Gini_rank = 9th
| HDI = 0.765
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_rank = 84th
| currency = Brazilian real
| currency_code = BRL
}}
'''Brazil''', officially the '''Federative Republic of Brazil''', is a country in [[Iberoamerica]]. It is the most populous country in its continent. It is a [[Dependency|dependent]] [[Capitalism|capitalist]] country.<ref>{{Citation|author=Ruy Mauro Marini|year=1973|title=Dialética da dependência|mia=https://www.marxists.org/portugues/marini/1973/mes/dialetica.htm}}</ref>

Since 2019, the country has been under the government of [[Jair Bolsonaro]], who promoted and enacted policies of [[privatization]] of [[state-owned enterprises]] led by the [[Chicago Boys]] member Paulo Guedes. It is a de facto military, [[Fascism|fascist]] government, composed of 6.1 thousand military personnel in public offices,<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Correio Braziliense|title=Segundo TCU, 6,1 mil militares ocupam cargos no governo|date=2020-07-17|url=https://www.correiobraziliense.com.br/app/noticia/economia/2020/07/17/internas_economia,873137/segundo-tcu-6-1-mil-militares-ocupam-cargos-no-governo.shtml|retrieved=2022-07-16}}</ref> more than 2.3 thousand irregularly.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Carta Capital|title=CGU aponta pagamentos e ocupações irregulares de 2,3 mil militares|date=2022-07-12|url=https://www.cartacapital.com.br/politica/cgu-aponta-pagamentos-e-ocupacoes-irregulares-de-23-mil-militares/|retrieved=2022-07-16}}</ref> Attaching particular importance to strengthening its position in Iberoamerica, the Brazilian government seeks to act as a leader of countries on the American continent.

== History ==

=== Pre-colonization (~60,000 BCE – 1500) ===
The appearance of man on the territory of Brazil refers to the Neolithic Age. Before the beginning of the 16th century, the territory of Brazil was inhabited by indigenous tribes: Tupi Guarani, Tupinambas, Botokuds, Tamoyos, Koroados, etc. All of them were at the stage of tribal organization and lived in small communities. The tribal aristocracy was just beginning to form, and most of the tribes were nomadic. The Tupi-Guaranis led a settled way of life. In their communities priests and chiefs were distinguished, who had some personal property, including domestic slaves.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|author=Rio de J.|year=1928—55|title=Documentos históricos, v. 1—109}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Citation|author=Rio de J.|year=1876—1957|title=Anais da Biblioteca nacional, v. I—75}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Citation|author=Rocha Pombu|year=1962|title=History of Brazil}}</ref>

=== Colonization period (1500–1822) ===
In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared the land he discovered to be the possession of Portugal. The Portuguese took the valuable mahogany pau-brasil (pau-brasil, hence the name of the country) from Brazil In the 30s of the 16th century the territory of Brazil coast was divided into 13 capitals which lands the donatarii - natives of the Portuguese feudal nobility - received as beneficiaries from the king. In 1549 a governorship general was established in Brazil with its capital in Salvador (Bahia). In the same year the Jesuits appeared in the colony. They established Indian settlements (missions), which were a branch of the extensive feudal organization of the Jesuit order with elements of slavery and patriarchal clan relations. The conquest of the territory of Brazil took place in the context of an intense struggle of Portugal with its rivals, mainly France and Holland. In 1630 the Dutch managed to capture the territory of the Pernambuco captaincy, but in 1654 they were expelled from the territory of Brazil On the colonized territory, from the 16th century, big landowners' estates (sesmaria) with the use of feudal and slave forms of exploitation of Indians and blacks started to form (the first parties of blacks were brought to Brazil in the 30-ies of the 16th century).

Production of goods imported from the metropolis (wheat, vegetable oil, wine, etc.) was forbidden in the colony. Only cotton, rice, corn were cultivated, but sugar cane was the main crop. Sugar cane plantations required large amount of labor. From the late 17th century the importation of slaves from Africa intensified, especially in connection with the discovery of gold and diamonds. The brutal exploitation of slaves on the plantations led to a large mortality rate. Indians and blacks put up stubborn resistance to their oppressors. In 1630 escaped slaves created in one of the remote regions of the Pernambuco state - the Republic of Palmaris that existed till 1697. In the 2nd half of the 17th century Portugal continued the centralization of the colonial government and the prohibitive trade policy. The local government had limited power, trade with the colony was given to a small number of companies, the main role among which played the Portuguese General Company of the Brazilian Trade, founded in 1649. From 1658 it raised sharply the taxes collected in the colony, in 1665 it introduced a salt monopoly. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the first speeches of colonists-Brazilians against the Portuguese authorities took place (1684, 1720). To contain the growth of discontent, the Portuguese government allowed the foundation of manufactories and expelled the Jesuits (1759). However at the end of the 18th century Portugal forbade the foundation of manufactures, the building of ships, and printing.

Gold and diamond mining became very important during this period, turning Brazil into the richest colony in Portugal. The so-called gold rush stimulated the foundation of new cities and the building of roads. Rio de Janeiro became the main point linking Brazil with the outside world. In 1763, the capital was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The contradictions between Banyan and the metropolis aggravated at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, which put all possible obstacles in the way of its economic, political, and cultural development. In 1789, a conspiracy led by Tiradentis was uncovered in the province of Minas Gerais. The conspirators intended to establish an independent republic and the gradual abolition of slavery. In 1797 rebellions against Portugal broke out in the province of Bahia, in which soldiers and the urban poor, including mulattoes and Negroes, participated. In 1807 in connection with the occupation of Portugal by Napoleon's troops, the Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro. The stay of the court had as a consequence a number of innovations. The captaincies came to be called provinces. Brazilian ports were opened to trade with other countries. Newspapers, magazines, a Brazilian bank, a national library and museum were founded. The royal court depended entirely on British patronage. By the treaty of 1810 Great Britain obtained great advantages in trade with Brazil The stay in Brazil of the royal court, the Portuguese army, English advisers and the expenses connected with it increased the tax oppression and caused a further growth of discontent among the working masses of Brazil with Portuguese domination. In 1815 Brazil received the status of a kingdom, becoming part of the "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarve". Formally, Brazil ceased to be a colony, but Portuguese authorities were still in charge in Brazil The movement against the rule of the colonizers did not weaken. In 1817, a rebellion broke out in the province of Pernambuco which then spread to Ceará, Paraíba, Maranhão and Alagoas. The rebels proclaimed the province of Pernambuco a republic, formed a provisional government, and appealed to all the people of Brazil to end Portuguese rule and establish an independent Brazilian republic; the revolutionary government lasted 72 days.

The bourgeois revolution of 1820 in Portugal led to a new upsurge in the movement for the independence of Brazil King João VI was forced to leave Brazil (1821), leaving his son Pedro I. as regent of Brazil The liberation movement under the slogan "Freedom or Death!" spread throughout Brazil On September 7, 1822, Pedro I. declared Brazil an independent empire. The day became a national holiday.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

=== Empire era (1822–1889) ===
In March 1824 the first constitution of the country came into force, according to which Brazil was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Portugal was forced to recognize the independence of Brazil (1825). The three-hundred-year colonial period ended, but the monarchy in Brazil survived. Under Emperors Pedro I of Brazil (1822-31) and his son Pedro II (1831-89) the country became economically dependent on Great Britain. In the peculiar combination of slave-holding, feudal and nascent capitalist production relations, slave-holding relations prevailed in the first half of the 19th century, especially in the main branches of Brazil economy: coffee and sugar production and in the mining industry. The political development of Brazil was marked by the persistent struggle of the masses against the monarchical regime and reaction, for a federal democratic republic and the abolition of slavery. In 1824-30, there were continuous uprisings of Negro slaves in the province of Bahia. In June 1831 a popular republican uprising broke out in the province of Rio de Janeiro. In 1833-1849 a wave of armed popular uprisings broke out in most provinces demanding the establishment of a democratic republic. The largest were the "farrapos" (ragamuffins) in the province of Rio Grande do Sul (1835- 1845) and the "praieiros" (coast-dwellers) in the province of Pernambuco (1848-1849).

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, with the abolition of the slave trade, slave labour was gradually replaced by free labour. The new production relations led to a more noticeable development of industry and agriculture. The process of formation of capitalist relations was accelerated by the growth of European immigration that began in the 50s and became particularly widespread in the 80s-90s.

In 1865-70 Brazil in alliance with Argentina and Uruguay fought a war for the dismemberment of Paraguay. During the war, the abolitionist movement intensified. In 1888, the so-called Golden Law on the abolition of slavery was issued. Anti-monarchist republican movement, which developed in parallel with the abolitionist movement, was led by the Republican Party (founded in 1869). There were popular anti-monarchist demonstrations in the country. On November 15, 1889 Emperor Pedro II was overthrown and Brazil was proclaimed a federal republic. The Constituent Assembly convened in February 1891 adopted a constitution similar to the U.S. Constitution. The provinces were transformed into states. The capital, Rio de Janeiro, was made a federal district.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Citation|author=Meade, Teresa|year=2016|title=A History of Modern Latin America-1800 to the Present}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Barman, Roderick J|year=1988|title=Brazil The Forging of a Nation, 1798–1852}}</ref>

=== Republic era (1889–1964) ===
With the proclamation of the republic, political power in the country remained in the hands of the landlords and the big bourgeoisie, connected with foreign, mainly English, capital. The government, protecting the interests of the ruling classes, brutally cracked down on the democratic movement. In 1896-97 a peasant land movement broke out in Bahia, near Canudus. It was suppressed by the government forces, but the peasants' fight for the land continued. With the abolition of slavery the capitalist development of Brazil accelerated considerably. The rapid growth of enterprises in towns led to an increase in the number of workers. The first trade unions and workers' organizations began to appear at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. In 1892 a workers' congress was held in Rio de Janeiro, which attempted to establish a workers' party. The Socialist Center was founded in Santos that year and led the May Day demonstrations of 1895 in Santos and São Paulo. By 1896 there were several Marxist circles in the country. A socialist newspaper, Sosialista (O Socialista), began to be published in São Paulo. In 1905-07 there were workers' demonstrations and strikes in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Santos, and in 1906 a workers' congress was held in Rio de Janeiro.

Foreign capital, which had penetrated the economy of Brazil, directed it in a direction beneficial to its interests. English and American monopolies seized fertile land. Coffee, cotton, and sugar took a leading place in the economy of Brazil In 1910 Brazil became a member of the Pan American Union. From that time American capital began to penetrate strongly into the Brazil economy, becoming after the World War I, 1914-1918 the main rival of British capital. From 1917 Brazil participated in the war on the side of the Entente.

Under the influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, the workers' movement in Brazil began to rise. In mass demonstrations and rallies workers openly expressed their sympathy for the ideas of the Russian revolution. In large cities, Marxist groups (socialist and communist circles and leagues) began to be created. In March 1922 the Brazilian Communist Party (BCP) was founded. In July 1922 there was an uprising of the capital's garrison in the Copacabana Fortress. In July 1924 the garrison of São Paulo rebelled. The city's masses supported the rebels. The rebels seized the city and held it for three weeks. Under the influence of events in Sao Paulo rebellions broke out in many states of Brazil. L. C. Prestes, who led the rebellion in the south of Brazil, led with continuous fighting the rebel column to the N. of the country (October 1924-February 1927). The governments of A. Bernardis (1922-26) and V. Luis Pereira (1926-30) suppressed the uprisings.

The economic crisis of 1929-33 hit Brazil with great force. During the crisis years, 2.4 million tons of coffee were destroyed as prices for all of Brazil's main exports - coffee, cocoa, cotton, and livestock products - plummeted on the world market. The working class suffered from unemployment. The crisis revealed the extreme backwardness of the social structure and Brazil's dependence on foreign capital. On the eve of the presidential elections of 1930, two hostile political factions had formed: the Conservative Concentration, which represented the interests of the landowners who relied on English imperialism, and the Liberal Alliance, which represented the bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisized landowners connected with the US imperialists. As a result of the armed struggle for power in November 1930 the Liberal Alliance supporter, J. Vargas, won and formed an interim government. In fact, a dictatorship was established in Brazil Vargas, who, depending on the situation, changed the methods of government in the interests of the bourgeoisie and landlords. The German and Italian monopolies intensively penetrated the economy of Brazil German monopolies acquired controlling stakes in a number of large manufacturing enterprises, iron mines, and vast lands in Riachan (on the N.-E.); the "German Bank for South America" established in Brazil 300 of its branches. The economic expansion of German imperialism strengthened fascist elements in the political life of the country. The Fascist party, the Integralist Action (founded in 1933), was active in Brazil The working class and the masses offered resolute resistance to the onslaught of fascism. In March 1935 the anti-fascist forces united into the National Liberation Alliance (NLA), which put forward the task of fighting against fascism and imperialism and for the implementation of an agrarian reform. In July the government forbade the activities of the NLA. In November 1935 armed uprisings took place under the leadership of the ELA in Rio de Janeiro, Niteroi, Recife, and Natal, drowned in blood. Brazil was declared a state of siege, tens of thousands of revolutionaries were arrested, including L. C. Prestes and other Communist Party leaders. The organization of corporate unions dependent on the government was intensified. In 1936 Vargas issued decrees on minimum wages, nationalization of the transport company Lloyd Brazileiro, owned by English capital, pensions for industrial workers, and in 1938 on nationalization of oil sources and wage increases for certain categories of workers. These measures were conditioned both by the struggle of workers for their rights and interests and by the development of capitalism in Brazil As a spokesman for the bourgeoisie, Vargas understood the need to increase the role of the state for the country's economic development.

In November 1937 Vargas dissolved the congress and promulgated a constitution proclaiming Brazil "a new state." In December, all political parties were dissolved. Vargas launched a social demagogy, portraying himself as the founder of a "new state of justice.

During [[World War II]], 1939-45, the penetration of U.S. imperialism into Brazil intensified. In January 1941 an agreement was signed to send a U.S. military mission to Brazil In January 1942, Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with Germany and Italy and in August 1942 declared war on them (Brazil declared war on Japan on June 6, 1945). The defeat of the Fascist powers gave a powerful impetus to the development of the democratic movement in Brazil Under the pressure of the masses, the Vargas government had granted amnesty to political prisoners in the beginning of 1945, had allowed the political parties, including the Communist Party, to work and had established diplomatic relations with the USSR (April 2, 1945). In the same year several political parties were founded: the Social-Democratic Party, reflecting the interests of large latifundists; the National Democratic Union, uniting broad sections of the national bourgeoisie, led by the leaders of the so-called Western, anti-communist orientation, and the Brazilian Trabalist Party, representing the middle and petty bourgeoisie and a considerable number of workers.

Frightened by the growth of the democratic movement, the most reactionary circles in Brazil, closely affiliated with the United States, decided to overthrow the Vargas government. On October 29 Generals G. Monteiro and E. G. Dutra organized a military coup. Parliamentary and presidential elections were held in December, with considerable success for the Communists, who for the first time nominated their candidates in national elections. The government was headed by General E. G. Dutra (1946-51). In 1946 a new constitution was adopted, reflecting some of the democratic gains of the workers, the rights of the people to the subsoil wealth of Brazil However, already in May 1947 reaction went on the offensive. The government banned the activities of the BKP, the Union of Communist Youth (founded in 1943) and the Trade Union Confederation of Workers (founded in 1946). In October 1947 Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR, and in May 1949 the Movement of Supporters of Peace was banned in the country. The Dutra government followed the policy of militarization and the Cold War. U.S. direct investment in Brazil rose from $323 million in 1946 to $803 million in 1951. The capitulation to U.S. imperialism and the repressive regime aroused popular discontent. As a result of the unfolding nationalist movement, the Vargas government (1951-54) came to power again. Due to the poor state of the finances, Vargas received as early as 1952 a $300 million loan from the United States and opened up access to U.S. private capital investment. At the same time, in 1953 the Vargas government created the state oil company Petrobras, which established a state monopoly (with the participation of Brazilian private capital) for exploration, production, and refining of Brazilian oil, and in April 1954 it submitted to Congress a bill to create the state company Electrobras. The labor movement in Brazil was intensifying. In 1953 800 thousand workers took part in the strike struggle (in the preceding 5 years an average of 200-300 thousand people). The trade unions united over 1.3 million workers. In May 1954, under the pressure of the masses Vargas declared that the minimum wage of workers and employees was to be doubled in comparison with 1951. The reactionary circles of the latifundists, big capitalists and the military believed that Vargas's policy stimulated the development of mass popular uprisings and threatened the existing order. In August, a meeting of air force generals decided to demand Vargas's resignation as "the only means" to resolve the "national crisis." Vargas committed suicide. The military and reaction tried to establish a dictatorial regime in Brazil The people thwarted their plans with mass demonstrations. The government of J. Kubicek de Oliveira (1956-60) came to power, representing both patriotic figures and reactionary politicians connected with foreign, mainly American, capital. Often reactionaries were able to exert decisive influence on government policy. In 1957 the Kubitschek government signed an agreement with the United States on giving up Fernando de Noronha for a five-year term as a U.S. military base.

In the 1950s, Brazil had an automobile industry, increased oil production and refining, ferrous metal smelting, cement production, and power generation. From agrarian Brazil was transforming into an agrarian-industrial country with large industrial centers: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Recife, etc. The opening of the new capital (April 21, 1960) - Brasilia - signaled the economic strengthening of the Brazilian bourgeoisie. However, many important sectors of the Brazilian economy remained in the hands of foreign capital, mainly the United States. Latifundia and backward relations persisted in agriculture.

In the 1960 elections, with the support of the bourgeoisie, latifundists, the Catholic Church, some social democrats and the Brazilian Trabalist Party, J. Cuadros was elected president. The Cuadros government charted a more independent foreign policy, took steps to establish diplomatic and trade relations with the USSR and other dependant countries, and strengthened the country's financial position. This caused discontent among reactionary circles connected with American monopolies. Under their pressure, Cuadros was forced to resign in August 1961. Nationalist forces opposed to the desire of reaction to establish a dictatorship in the country, achieved the accession to the presidency of Vice-President J. Goulart. Goulart's government which came to power in September 1961 (1961-64) restored diplomatic relations with the USSR. In October - November 1961, the National Liberation Front was founded which united the nationalist and patriotic forces of the country. In its activities, the Goulart government relied mainly on the national bourgeoisie and nationalist forces. It put forward a program of agrarian, financial, and banking reforms, education reform, etc. From December 1963 to March 1964, the Goulart government passed decrees restricting the export of profits from the country (not more than 10%) on invested foreign capital, establishing a state monopoly on oil and petroleum product imports, nationalizing oil refineries, nationalizing uncultivated land located within a 10-km strip along state railroads and highways and waterworks, canceling mining concessions (if companies do not exploit mines) and granting exclusive rights In the field of foreign policy, the Goulart government advocated general and complete disarmament and the peaceful coexistence of states with different socio-economic systems.

In 1961, [[Centrism|centrist]] president [[Jânio Quadro|Jânio Quadros]] resigned after seven months in office, leading to his [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] vice president, [[João Goulart]], becoming president. Goulart supported agrarian reform and universal suffrage and was supported by Catholic bishops and members of student [[Trade union|unions]]. The pro-imperialist bourgeoisie, connected with the U.S. monopolies, the latifundists, a certain part of the army, above all the reactionary generals and high officers, as well as the reactionary upper class of the Catholic Church, strongly opposed the measures of the Goulart government. Taking advantage of the ferment in the army, reaction turned to open action. The United States turned on him after he refused to ban leftists from his cabinet and the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] began funding his opponents in October 1962.<ref>{{Citation|author=Matias Spektor|year=2018|title=The United States and the 1964 Brazilian Military Coup|page=1–3|pdf=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4307854/mod_resource/content/1/Spektor%20US%20Military%20Coup%20in%20Brazil.pdf|publisher=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History}}</ref> On March 31, 1964 a military mutiny broke out in the state of Minas Gerais. As a result of the coup d'etat, a political-military group led by General U. Castelo Branco representing the interests of large landowners and financial-industrial groups connected with American monopolies came to power.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Citation|author=Glinkin A. N.|year=1959|title=The Modern History of Brazil}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Citation|author=Koval B. I.|year=1967|title=History of the Brazilian Proletariat (1857-1967)}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Sivolobov A. M.|year=1959|title=Agrarian relations in modern Brazil}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Faco P.|year=1962|title=Brazil of the XX century}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{News citation|author=[[Edmilson Costa]]|newspaper=[[Liberation School]]|title=Remembering the Years of Lead under Brazil’s military rule: AI-5 never again!|date=2019-12-23|url=https://www.liberationschool.org/remembering-the-years-of-lead-under-brazils-military-rule-ai-5-never-again/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515161458/https://liberationschool.org/remembering-the-years-of-lead-under-brazils-military-rule-ai-5-never-again/|archive-date=2021-05-15|retrieved=2022-06-21}}</ref>

=== Military dictatorship (1964–1985) ===
Soon after the coup, the military abolished the 1946 constitution and banned the [[General Confederation of Workers]] (CGT) and [[National Students' Union]] (UNE). Other [[Trade union|unions]] were allowed, but their leadership was controlled by the government. In 1968, military leader [[Artur da Costa e Silva]] passed Institutional Act No. 5, removing all limits on the military dictatorship's power. More than 300 politicians, including former presidents Goulart, Cuadros, and Kubitschek, as well as BKP Secretary General L. K. Prestes, were deprived of their political rights for 10 years under this act. Under the dictatorship, 50,000 people were arrested, 7,000 were exiled, and over 400 were killed. Brazil's intelligence service, the [[National Information Service|SNI]], was trained to torture dissidents by CIA agent [[Dan Mitrione]]. At two torture centers, the House of Death in Pétropolis and the Kerosene Nightclub in São Paulo, almost everyone who was tortured died.

On April 11 Castelo Branco, one of the organizers of the coup, was elected president. By decrees of military authorities and presidential decrees, the constitution of 1946 was practically abrogated, political parties were dissolved, the National Congress, state apparatus, army, educational institutions were purged, and control over trade unions was established. The Branco government (1964-67) disbanded the political parties and in 1966 it decreed the formation of two political groups: the National Union of Renewal and the Brazilian Democratic Movement, which was the legal opposition. In favor of U.S. interests, the government repealed the law restricting the export of profits from the country by foreign enterprises, severed diplomatic relations with Cuba, and participated in the U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic. The Branco government repeatedly expressed solidarity with the U.S. ruling circles that unleashed military action against Vietnam in 1964, and provided material support to the Saigon regime in South Vietnam.

In March 1967 General A. da Costa e Silva became president. The new government (1967-69) represented basically the same military-political and social forces as the previous military government. The internal political course remained essentially unchanged. In 1967-68, the student movement and workers' struggle against the military regime and its wage blocking policy intensified. Part of the Catholic clergy also opposed the government. The so-called Broad Front of the Legal Opposition was also a political opponent of the government. In April 1968, the government banned its activities. Contradictions within the government and its main supporter, the armed forces, became acute. In December 1968, the parliament was dissolved, and the power went to the President. At the beginning of 1969 some more decrees were issued to expand the President's authority, but all that did not lead to normalization of the political situation in the country. In August 1969, due to the illness of Costa e Silva, power passed into the hands of a triumvirate of military ministers, which was in fact a military coup. In October, General [[Emílio Garrastazu Médici]] took power and ruled until 1974. He abolished the National Congress, gave all power to the presidency, and banned public demonstrations. In the mid-1970s, ten members of the [[Brazilian Communist Party]] (PCB) Central Committee were murdered and their bodies were hidden in a river. Almost all leadership of the PCB was arrested and 2,000 militants were tortured. PCB leader [[Elson Costa]] was tortured for more than 20 days and was burned alive after refusing to give information.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":0" />

Institutional Act 5 was repealed in 1978<ref name=":0" /> and military rule ended in 1985.<ref>{{News citation|author=Nicholas Stender|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]|title=Bolsonaro’s coup threats rejected by people of Brazil|date=2021-09-08|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/bolsonaros-coup-threats-rejected-by-people-of-brazil/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220082726/https://www.liberationnews.org/bolsonaros-coup-threats-rejected-by-people-of-brazil/|archive-date=2021-12-20|retrieved=2022-06-21}}</ref>

=== Recent history (1985–present) ===
In 2002, [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] of the [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers' Party]] was elected president after building an alliance with centrists. Lula enacted social programs that reduced poverty and increased access to higher education. In 2010, Lula was succeeded by [[Dilma Rousseff]]. In 2014, an economic crisis began in Brazil and austerity measures were enacted. The right organized the impeachment of Rousseff and her vice president, Michel Temer, took power in 2016. In 2018, Lula was arrested and prevented from running for president. A left-wing coalition that included the PCB and the [[Socialism and Liberty Party]] supported the Workers' Party candidate [[Fernando Haddad]]. Haddad lost the election with 44.87% of the vote, and [[Jair Bolsonaro]] of the far-right "Brazil above Everything, God above Everyone" coalition won with 55.13% of the vote.<ref>{{News citation|author=Silvio Rodrigues|newspaper=Liberation School|title=Bolsonaro: A danger to Brazil, Latin America, and the whole world|date=2019-01-23|url=https://www.liberationschool.org/bolsonaro-a-danger-to-brazil-latin-america-and-the-whole-world/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117093248/https://www.liberationschool.org/bolsonaro-a-danger-to-brazil-latin-america-and-the-whole-world/|archive-date=2021-01-17|retrieved=2022-06-05}}</ref>

== Art<ref>{{Citation|author=Craven David|year=2002|title=Art and Revolution in Latin America, 1910-1990}}</ref> ==
In the 1920s there was a new visual art of Brazil (one of its sources - the movement "Week of Modern Art", Sao Paulo, 1922), in which the quest in the spirit of social realism is intertwined with subjectivist experiments, In painting next to the majestic folk images of C. Portinari and E. di Cavalcanti, folk and bright decorative paintings of Tarsila do Amaral and self-taught artist Janira, expressionism (L. Segal), abstractionism and the latest modernist trends were developed. The democratic graphic art of Brazil (O. Goeldi, K. Skliar, R. Katz) is characterized by spiritual expressiveness. For sculpture (B. Giorgi, V. Breshere) oscillation between vital national images and abstract fantasies is characteristic. In the decorative arts ceramics and painting of fabrics are distinguished.

Diverse types of folk art Brazil - Negro (figurines, multicolored clothing, household utensils in the traditions of African art) and especially indigenous (figural ceramics of Karage people, wooden figurines of Cadiuveo people, polychrome painting of huts of Tukano people, carved zoomorphic Carib benches, patterned weaving, feather products, weaving from palm leaves and many others). Common types of folk dwellings (including indigenous dwellings) are dugouts, huts (piled in humid areas), canopies made of palm leaves.

== Economy ==
Brazil exports $28.6B of soybeans (13.36%), $26.5B of iron ore (12.38%), $19.8B of crude petroleum (9.25%), $8.95B of raw sugar (4.18%), $6.69B of bovine meat (3.12%) and $123.5B of other products, totaling $214B in exports. These exports flow mostly towards China ($67.9B), United States ($21.9B), [[Argentine Republic|Argentina]] ($8.57B), [[Netherlands]] ($6.7B), and [[Canada]] ($4.39B).<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC)|title=Brazil (BRA) exports, imports, and trade partners|date=2020|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/bra}}</ref>

== Politics ==

=== Class struggle in Brazil===
[[File:19th June Brazil São Paulo.png|thumb|Thousands took up the streets of São Paulo against the Federal Government in 19th June, 2021]]
In June 19th, 2021, protesters in over 400 cities in protest of the [[Fascism|fascist]] Jair Bolsonaro government. Militants and activists gathered safely, respecting social isolation guidelines related to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Textcite|author=Beatriz Drague Ramos|year=2021-06-21|title=Por vacinas para todos e contra Bolsonaro, manifestantes vão às ruas neste sábado|pdf=|publisher=Ponte Jornalismo|lg=|trans=For vaccines for all and against Bolsonaro, demonstrators take to the streets this Saturday|translang=Portuguese|web=https://ponte.org/por-vacinas-para-todos-e-contra-bolsonaro-manifestantes-vao-as-ruas-neste-sabado/}}</ref>

=== Police brutality ===
The Brazilian police killed at least 645 people in Rio de Janeiro in 2015. The police commit 20% of murders in Rio, and 80% of their victims are youth of African descent.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]|title=Brazil intensifies genocide against Africans in preparation for 2016 Olympic Games|date=2016-08-04|url=https://www.theburningspear.com/2016/08/Brazil-intensifies-genocide-against-Africans-in-preparation-for-2016-Olympic-Games|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816153336/https://www.theburningspear.com/2016/08/Brazil-intensifies-genocide-against-Africans-in-preparation-for-2016-Olympic-Games|archive-date=2021-08-16|retrieved=2022-08-27}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==

== Demographics ==

== Culture ==

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Countries]]
[[Category:Global south]]
[[Category:Latin American countries]]

Federative Republic of Brazil

2022-11-15T19:10:43Z

GheorgheCraciun:

{{Infobox country
| name = Federative Republic of Brazil
| native_name = República Federativa do Brasil
| image_flag = File:Flag of Brazil.svg
| image_coat = File:Coat of arms of Brazil.svg
| image_map = Brazil (ortographic projection).svg
| map_width = 220px
| capital = Brasília
| largest_city = São Paulo
| government_type = [[Federation|Federal]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[Bourgeois state|bourgeois state]]
| established_event1 = Proclamation of the Empire of Brazil
| established_date1 = 1822 September 7th
| established_event2 = Proclamation of the Republic of Brazil
| established_date2 = 1889 November 15th
| established_event3 = US-backed right-wing military dictatorship
| established_date3 = 1964 April 1st
| established_event4 = Redemocratization
| established_date4 = 1985 March 15th
| population_estimate = 211,755,692<ref>Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (2020). [https://www.in.gov.br/web/dou/-/portaria-n-pr-254-de-25-de-agosto-de-2020-274382852 Estimates published in official government documents].</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2020
| labour_force = 86.621 million<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy">CIA World Factbook (2020). ''[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/#economy Brazil – The world factbook (economy)]''</ref>
| labour_force_participation = 56.8%<ref>Trading economics (2021). ''[https://tradingeconomics.com/brazil/labor-force-participation-rate Brazil labor force participation rate]'' </ref>
| labour_occupation = agriculture: 9.4% industry: 32.1% services: 58.5%<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| unemployment = 14.7%<ref>Trading economics (2021). ''[https://tradingeconomics.com/brazil/unemployment-rate Brazil unemployment rate]'' </ref>
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 = Jair Bolsonaro
| leader_title2 = President of the Chamber of Deputies
| leader_name2 = Arthur Lira
| leader_title3 = President of the Federal Senate
| leader_name3 = Rodrigo Pacheco
| leader_title4 = President of the Supreme Federal Court
| leader_name4 = Luiz Fux
| GDP_nominal_year = 2019
| GDP_nominal = US$1.84 trillion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=BR GDP (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = US$8,717.18<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=BR GDP per capita (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| export_year = 2019
| export = US$263 billion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.CD?locations=BR Exports of goods and services (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| export_commodities = soybeans, crude petroleum, iron, corn, wood pulp products<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| export_partners = [[People's Republic of China|China]] (28%), [[United States of America|United States]] (13%)<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| import_year = 2019
| import = US$269 billion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.IMP.GNFS.CD?locations=BR Imports of goods and services (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| import_commodities = refined petroleum, vehicle parts, crude petroleum, integrated circuits, pesticides<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| import_partners = [[People's Republic of China|China]] (21%), [[United States of America|United States]] (18%), [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]] (6%)
| external_debt = US$684.6 billion
| external_debt_rank = 20th
| Gini = 53.9%
| Gini_year = 2018
| Gini_rank = 9th
| HDI = 0.765
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_rank = 84th
| currency = Brazilian real
| currency_code = BRL
}}
'''Brazil''', officially the '''Federative Republic of Brazil''', is a country in [[Iberoamerica]]. It is the most populous country in its continent. It is a [[Dependency|dependent]] [[Capitalism|capitalist]] country.<ref>{{Citation|author=Ruy Mauro Marini|year=1973|title=Dialética da dependência|mia=https://www.marxists.org/portugues/marini/1973/mes/dialetica.htm}}</ref>

Since 2019, the country has been under the government of [[Jair Bolsonaro]], who promoted and enacted policies of [[privatization]] of [[state-owned enterprises]] led by the [[Chicago Boys]] member Paulo Guedes. It is a de facto military, [[Fascism|fascist]] government, composed of 6.1 thousand military personnel in public offices,<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Correio Braziliense|title=Segundo TCU, 6,1 mil militares ocupam cargos no governo|date=2020-07-17|url=https://www.correiobraziliense.com.br/app/noticia/economia/2020/07/17/internas_economia,873137/segundo-tcu-6-1-mil-militares-ocupam-cargos-no-governo.shtml|retrieved=2022-07-16}}</ref> more than 2.3 thousand irregularly.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Carta Capital|title=CGU aponta pagamentos e ocupações irregulares de 2,3 mil militares|date=2022-07-12|url=https://www.cartacapital.com.br/politica/cgu-aponta-pagamentos-e-ocupacoes-irregulares-de-23-mil-militares/|retrieved=2022-07-16}}</ref> Attaching particular importance to strengthening its position in Iberoamerica, the Brazilian government seeks to act as a leader of countries on the American continent.

== History ==

=== Pre-colonization (~60,000 BCE – 1500) ===
The appearance of man on the territory of Brazil refers to the Neolithic Age. Before the beginning of the 16th century, the territory of Brazil was inhabited by indigenous tribes: Tupi Guarani, Tupinambas, Botokuds, Tamoyos, Koroados, etc. All of them were at the stage of tribal organization and lived in small communities. The tribal aristocracy was just beginning to form, and most of the tribes were nomadic. The Tupi-Guaranis led a settled way of life. In their communities priests and chiefs were distinguished, who had some personal property, including domestic slaves.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|author=Rio de J.|year=1928—55|title=Documentos históricos, v. 1—109}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Citation|author=Rio de J.|year=1876—1957|title=Anais da Biblioteca nacional, v. I—75}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Citation|author=Rocha Pombu|year=1962|title=History of Brazil}}</ref>

=== Colonization period (1500–1822) ===
In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared the land he discovered to be the possession of Portugal. The Portuguese took the valuable mahogany pau-brasil (pau-brasil, hence the name of the country) from Brazil In the 30s of the 16th century the territory of Brazil coast was divided into 13 capitals which lands the donatarii - natives of the Portuguese feudal nobility - received as beneficiaries from the king. In 1549 a governorship general was established in Brazil with its capital in Salvador (Bahia). In the same year the Jesuits appeared in the colony. They established Indian settlements (missions), which were a branch of the extensive feudal organization of the Jesuit order with elements of slavery and patriarchal clan relations. The conquest of the territory of Brazil took place in the context of an intense struggle of Portugal with its rivals, mainly France and Holland. In 1630 the Dutch managed to capture the territory of the Pernambuco captaincy, but in 1654 they were expelled from the territory of Brazil On the colonized territory, from the 16th century, big landowners' estates (sesmaria) with the use of feudal and slave forms of exploitation of Indians and blacks started to form (the first parties of blacks were brought to Brazil in the 30-ies of the 16th century).

Production of goods imported from the metropolis (wheat, vegetable oil, wine, etc.) was forbidden in the colony. Only cotton, rice, corn were cultivated, but sugar cane was the main crop. Sugar cane plantations required large amount of labor. From the late 17th century the importation of slaves from Africa intensified, especially in connection with the discovery of gold and diamonds. The brutal exploitation of slaves on the plantations led to a large mortality rate. Indians and blacks put up stubborn resistance to their oppressors. In 1630 escaped slaves created in one of the remote regions of the Pernambuco state - the Republic of Palmaris that existed till 1697. In the 2nd half of the 17th century Portugal continued the centralization of the colonial government and the prohibitive trade policy. The local government had limited power, trade with the colony was given to a small number of companies, the main role among which played the Portuguese General Company of the Brazilian Trade, founded in 1649. From 1658 it raised sharply the taxes collected in the colony, in 1665 it introduced a salt monopoly. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the first speeches of colonists-Brazilians against the Portuguese authorities took place (1684, 1720). To contain the growth of discontent, the Portuguese government allowed the foundation of manufactories and expelled the Jesuits (1759). However at the end of the 18th century Portugal forbade the foundation of manufactures, the building of ships, and printing.

Gold and diamond mining became very important during this period, turning Brazil into the richest colony in Portugal. The so-called gold rush stimulated the foundation of new cities and the building of roads. Rio de Janeiro became the main point linking Brazil with the outside world. In 1763, the capital was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The contradictions between Banyan and the metropolis aggravated at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, which put all possible obstacles in the way of its economic, political, and cultural development. In 1789, a conspiracy led by Tiradentis was uncovered in the province of Minas Gerais. The conspirators intended to establish an independent republic and the gradual abolition of slavery. In 1797 rebellions against Portugal broke out in the province of Bahia, in which soldiers and the urban poor, including mulattoes and Negroes, participated. In 1807 in connection with the occupation of Portugal by Napoleon's troops, the Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro. The stay of the court had as a consequence a number of innovations. The captaincies came to be called provinces. Brazilian ports were opened to trade with other countries. Newspapers, magazines, a Brazilian bank, a national library and museum were founded. The royal court depended entirely on British patronage. By the treaty of 1810 Great Britain obtained great advantages in trade with Brazil The stay in Brazil of the royal court, the Portuguese army, English advisers and the expenses connected with it increased the tax oppression and caused a further growth of discontent among the working masses of Brazil with Portuguese domination. In 1815 Brazil received the status of a kingdom, becoming part of the "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarve". Formally, Brazil ceased to be a colony, but Portuguese authorities were still in charge in Brazil The movement against the rule of the colonizers did not weaken. In 1817, a rebellion broke out in the province of Pernambuco which then spread to Ceará, Paraíba, Maranhão and Alagoas. The rebels proclaimed the province of Pernambuco a republic, formed a provisional government, and appealed to all the people of Brazil to end Portuguese rule and establish an independent Brazilian republic; the revolutionary government lasted 72 days.

The bourgeois revolution of 1820 in Portugal led to a new upsurge in the movement for the independence of Brazil King João VI was forced to leave Brazil (1821), leaving his son Pedro I. as regent of Brazil The liberation movement under the slogan "Freedom or Death!" spread throughout Brazil On September 7, 1822, Pedro I. declared Brazil an independent empire. The day became a national holiday.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

=== Empire era (1822–1889) <ref name=":4">{{Citation|author=Meade, Teresa|year=2016|title=A History of Modern Latin America-1800 to the Present}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Citation|author=Koval B. I.|year=1967|title=History of the Brazilian Proletariat (1857-1967)}}</ref> ===
In March 1824 the first constitution of the country came into force, according to which Brazil was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Portugal was forced to recognize the independence of Brazil (1825). The three-hundred-year colonial period ended, but the monarchy in Brazil survived. Under Emperors Pedro I of Brazil (1822-31) and his son Pedro II (1831-89) the country became economically dependent on Great Britain. In the peculiar combination of slave-holding, feudal and nascent capitalist production relations, slave-holding relations prevailed in the first half of the 19th century, especially in the main branches of Brazil economy: coffee and sugar production and in the mining industry. The political development of Brazil was marked by the persistent struggle of the masses against the monarchical regime and reaction, for a federal democratic republic and the abolition of slavery. In 1824-30, there were continuous uprisings of Negro slaves in the province of Bahia. In June 1831 a popular republican uprising broke out in the province of Rio de Janeiro. In 1833-1849 a wave of armed popular uprisings broke out in most provinces demanding the establishment of a democratic republic. The largest were the "farrapos" (ragamuffins) in the province of Rio Grande do Sul (1835- 1845) and the "praieiros" (coast-dwellers) in the province of Pernambuco (1848-1849).

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, with the abolition of the slave trade, slave labour was gradually replaced by free labour. The new production relations led to a more noticeable development of industry and agriculture. The process of formation of capitalist relations was accelerated by the growth of European immigration that began in the 50s and became particularly widespread in the 80s-90s.

In 1865-70 Brazil in alliance with Argentina and Uruguay fought a war for the dismemberment of Paraguay. During the war, the abolitionist movement intensified. In 1888, the so-called Golden Law on the abolition of slavery was issued. Anti-monarchist republican movement, which developed in parallel with the abolitionist movement, was led by the Republican Party (founded in 1869). There were popular anti-monarchist demonstrations in the country. On November 15, 1889 Emperor Pedro II was overthrown and Brazil was proclaimed a federal republic. The Constituent Assembly convened in February 1891 adopted a constitution similar to the U.S. Constitution. The provinces were transformed into states. The capital, Rio de Janeiro, was made a federal district.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Citation|author=Barman, Roderick J|year=1988|title=Brazil The Forging of a Nation, 1798–1852}}</ref>

=== Republic era (1889–1964) ===
With the proclamation of the republic, political power in the country remained in the hands of the landlords and the big bourgeoisie, connected with foreign, mainly English, capital. The government, protecting the interests of the ruling classes, brutally cracked down on the democratic movement. In 1896-97 a peasant land movement broke out in Bahia, near Canudus. It was suppressed by the government forces, but the peasants' fight for the land continued. With the abolition of slavery the capitalist development of Brazil accelerated considerably. The rapid growth of enterprises in towns led to an increase in the number of workers. The first trade unions and workers' organizations began to appear at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. In 1892 a workers' congress was held in Rio de Janeiro, which attempted to establish a workers' party. The Socialist Center was founded in Santos that year and led the May Day demonstrations of 1895 in Santos and São Paulo. By 1896 there were several Marxist circles in the country. A socialist newspaper, Sosialista (O Socialista), began to be published in São Paulo. In 1905-07 there were workers' demonstrations and strikes in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Santos, and in 1906 a workers' congress was held in Rio de Janeiro.

Foreign capital, which had penetrated the economy of Brazil, directed it in a direction beneficial to its interests. English and American monopolies seized fertile land. Coffee, cotton, and sugar took a leading place in the economy of Brazil In 1910 Brazil became a member of the Pan American Union. From that time American capital began to penetrate strongly into the Brazil economy, becoming after the World War I, 1914-1918 the main rival of British capital. From 1917 Brazil participated in the war on the side of the Entente.

Under the influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, the workers' movement in Brazil began to rise. In mass demonstrations and rallies workers openly expressed their sympathy for the ideas of the Russian revolution. In large cities, Marxist groups (socialist and communist circles and leagues) began to be created. In March 1922 the Brazilian Communist Party (BCP) was founded. In July 1922 there was an uprising of the capital's garrison in the Copacabana Fortress. In July 1924 the garrison of São Paulo rebelled. The city's masses supported the rebels. The rebels seized the city and held it for three weeks. Under the influence of events in Sao Paulo rebellions broke out in many states of Brazil. L. C. Prestes, who led the rebellion in the south of Brazil, led with continuous fighting the rebel column to the N. of the country (October 1924-February 1927). The governments of A. Bernardis (1922-26) and V. Luis Pereira (1926-30) suppressed the uprisings.

The economic crisis of 1929-33 hit Brazil with great force. During the crisis years, 2.4 million tons of coffee were destroyed as prices for all of Brazil's main exports - coffee, cocoa, cotton, and livestock products - plummeted on the world market. The working class suffered from unemployment. The crisis revealed the extreme backwardness of the social structure and Brazil's dependence on foreign capital. On the eve of the presidential elections of 1930, two hostile political factions had formed: the Conservative Concentration, which represented the interests of the landowners who relied on English imperialism, and the Liberal Alliance, which represented the bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisized landowners connected with the US imperialists. As a result of the armed struggle for power in November 1930 the Liberal Alliance supporter, J. Vargas, won and formed an interim government. In fact, a dictatorship was established in Brazil Vargas, who, depending on the situation, changed the methods of government in the interests of the bourgeoisie and landlords. The German and Italian monopolies intensively penetrated the economy of Brazil German monopolies acquired controlling stakes in a number of large manufacturing enterprises, iron mines, and vast lands in Riachan (on the N.-E.); the "German Bank for South America" established in Brazil 300 of its branches. The economic expansion of German imperialism strengthened fascist elements in the political life of the country. The Fascist party, the Integralist Action (founded in 1933), was active in Brazil The working class and the masses offered resolute resistance to the onslaught of fascism. In March 1935 the anti-fascist forces united into the National Liberation Alliance (NLA), which put forward the task of fighting against fascism and imperialism and for the implementation of an agrarian reform. In July the government forbade the activities of the NLA. In November 1935 armed uprisings took place under the leadership of the ELA in Rio de Janeiro, Niteroi, Recife, and Natal, drowned in blood. Brazil was declared a state of siege, tens of thousands of revolutionaries were arrested, including L. C. Prestes and other Communist Party leaders. The organization of corporate unions dependent on the government was intensified. In 1936 Vargas issued decrees on minimum wages, nationalization of the transport company Lloyd Brazileiro, owned by English capital, pensions for industrial workers, and in 1938 on nationalization of oil sources and wage increases for certain categories of workers. These measures were conditioned both by the struggle of workers for their rights and interests and by the development of capitalism in Brazil As a spokesman for the bourgeoisie, Vargas understood the need to increase the role of the state for the country's economic development.

In November 1937 Vargas dissolved the congress and promulgated a constitution proclaiming Brazil "a new state." In December, all political parties were dissolved. Vargas launched a social demagogy, portraying himself as the founder of a "new state of justice.

During [[World War II]], 1939-45, the penetration of U.S. imperialism into Brazil intensified. In January 1941 an agreement was signed to send a U.S. military mission to Brazil In January 1942, Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with Germany and Italy and in August 1942 declared war on them (Brazil declared war on Japan on June 6, 1945). The defeat of the Fascist powers gave a powerful impetus to the development of the democratic movement in Brazil Under the pressure of the masses, the Vargas government had granted amnesty to political prisoners in the beginning of 1945, had allowed the political parties, including the Communist Party, to work and had established diplomatic relations with the USSR (April 2, 1945). In the same year several political parties were founded: the Social-Democratic Party, reflecting the interests of large latifundists; the National Democratic Union, uniting broad sections of the national bourgeoisie, led by the leaders of the so-called Western, anti-communist orientation, and the Brazilian Trabalist Party, representing the middle and petty bourgeoisie and a considerable number of workers.

Frightened by the growth of the democratic movement, the most reactionary circles in Brazil, closely affiliated with the United States, decided to overthrow the Vargas government. On October 29 Generals G. Monteiro and E. G. Dutra organized a military coup. Parliamentary and presidential elections were held in December, with considerable success for the Communists, who for the first time nominated their candidates in national elections. The government was headed by General E. G. Dutra (1946-51). In 1946 a new constitution was adopted, reflecting some of the democratic gains of the workers, the rights of the people to the subsoil wealth of Brazil However, already in May 1947 reaction went on the offensive. The government banned the activities of the BKP, the Union of Communist Youth (founded in 1943) and the Trade Union Confederation of Workers (founded in 1946). In October 1947 Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR, and in May 1949 the Movement of Supporters of Peace was banned in the country. The Dutra government followed the policy of militarization and the Cold War. U.S. direct investment in Brazil rose from $323 million in 1946 to $803 million in 1951. The capitulation to U.S. imperialism and the repressive regime aroused popular discontent. As a result of the unfolding nationalist movement, the Vargas government (1951-54) came to power again. Due to the poor state of the finances, Vargas received as early as 1952 a $300 million loan from the United States and opened up access to U.S. private capital investment. At the same time, in 1953 the Vargas government created the state oil company Petrobras, which established a state monopoly (with the participation of Brazilian private capital) for exploration, production, and refining of Brazilian oil, and in April 1954 it submitted to Congress a bill to create the state company Electrobras. The labor movement in Brazil was intensifying. In 1953 800 thousand workers took part in the strike struggle (in the preceding 5 years an average of 200-300 thousand people). The trade unions united over 1.3 million workers. In May 1954, under the pressure of the masses Vargas declared that the minimum wage of workers and employees was to be doubled in comparison with 1951. The reactionary circles of the latifundists, big capitalists and the military believed that Vargas's policy stimulated the development of mass popular uprisings and threatened the existing order. In August, a meeting of air force generals decided to demand Vargas's resignation as "the only means" to resolve the "national crisis." Vargas committed suicide. The military and reaction tried to establish a dictatorial regime in Brazil The people thwarted their plans with mass demonstrations. The government of J. Kubicek de Oliveira (1956-60) came to power, representing both patriotic figures and reactionary politicians connected with foreign, mainly American, capital. Often reactionaries were able to exert decisive influence on government policy. In 1957 the Kubitschek government signed an agreement with the United States on giving up Fernando de Noronha for a five-year term as a U.S. military base.

In the 1950s, Brazil had an automobile industry, increased oil production and refining, ferrous metal smelting, cement production, and power generation. From agrarian Brazil was transforming into an agrarian-industrial country with large industrial centers: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Recife, etc. The opening of the new capital (April 21, 1960) - Brasilia - signaled the economic strengthening of the Brazilian bourgeoisie. However, many important sectors of the Brazilian economy remained in the hands of foreign capital, mainly the United States. Latifundia and backward relations persisted in agriculture.

In the 1960 elections, with the support of the bourgeoisie, latifundists, the Catholic Church, some social democrats and the Brazilian Trabalist Party, J. Cuadros was elected president. The Cuadros government charted a more independent foreign policy, took steps to establish diplomatic and trade relations with the USSR and other dependant countries, and strengthened the country's financial position. This caused discontent among reactionary circles connected with American monopolies. Under their pressure, Cuadros was forced to resign in August 1961. Nationalist forces opposed to the desire of reaction to establish a dictatorship in the country, achieved the accession to the presidency of Vice-President J. Goulart. Goulart's government which came to power in September 1961 (1961-64) restored diplomatic relations with the USSR. In October - November 1961, the National Liberation Front was founded which united the nationalist and patriotic forces of the country. In its activities, the Goulart government relied mainly on the national bourgeoisie and nationalist forces. It put forward a program of agrarian, financial, and banking reforms, education reform, etc. From December 1963 to March 1964, the Goulart government passed decrees restricting the export of profits from the country (not more than 10%) on invested foreign capital, establishing a state monopoly on oil and petroleum product imports, nationalizing oil refineries, nationalizing uncultivated land located within a 10-km strip along state railroads and highways and waterworks, canceling mining concessions (if companies do not exploit mines) and granting exclusive rights In the field of foreign policy, the Goulart government advocated general and complete disarmament and the peaceful coexistence of states with different socio-economic systems.

In 1961, [[Centrism|centrist]] president [[Jânio Quadro|Jânio Quadros]] resigned after seven months in office, leading to his [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] vice president, [[João Goulart]], becoming president. Goulart supported agrarian reform and universal suffrage and was supported by Catholic bishops and members of student [[Trade union|unions]]. The pro-imperialist bourgeoisie, connected with the U.S. monopolies, the latifundists, a certain part of the army, above all the reactionary generals and high officers, as well as the reactionary upper class of the Catholic Church, strongly opposed the measures of the Goulart government. Taking advantage of the ferment in the army, reaction turned to open action. The United States turned on him after he refused to ban leftists from his cabinet and the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] began funding his opponents in October 1962.<ref>{{Citation|author=Matias Spektor|year=2018|title=The United States and the 1964 Brazilian Military Coup|page=1–3|pdf=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4307854/mod_resource/content/1/Spektor%20US%20Military%20Coup%20in%20Brazil.pdf|publisher=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History}}</ref> On March 31, 1964 a military mutiny broke out in the state of Minas Gerais. As a result of the coup d'etat, a political-military group led by General U. Castelo Branco representing the interests of large landowners and financial-industrial groups connected with American monopolies came to power.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Citation|author=Glinkin A. N.|year=1959|title=The Modern History of Brazil}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Citation|author=Sivolobov A. M.|year=1959|title=Agrarian relations in modern Brazil}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Faco P.|year=1962|title=Brazil of the XX century}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{News citation|author=[[Edmilson Costa]]|newspaper=[[Liberation School]]|title=Remembering the Years of Lead under Brazil’s military rule: AI-5 never again!|date=2019-12-23|url=https://www.liberationschool.org/remembering-the-years-of-lead-under-brazils-military-rule-ai-5-never-again/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515161458/https://liberationschool.org/remembering-the-years-of-lead-under-brazils-military-rule-ai-5-never-again/|archive-date=2021-05-15|retrieved=2022-06-21}}</ref>

=== Military dictatorship (1964–1985) ===
Soon after the coup, the military abolished the 1946 constitution and banned the [[General Confederation of Workers]] (CGT) and [[National Students' Union]] (UNE). Other [[Trade union|unions]] were allowed, but their leadership was controlled by the government. In 1968, military leader [[Artur da Costa e Silva]] passed Institutional Act No. 5, removing all limits on the military dictatorship's power. More than 300 politicians, including former presidents Goulart, Cuadros, and Kubitschek, as well as BKP Secretary General L. K. Prestes, were deprived of their political rights for 10 years under this act. Under the dictatorship, 50,000 people were arrested, 7,000 were exiled, and over 400 were killed. Brazil's intelligence service, the [[National Information Service|SNI]], was trained to torture dissidents by CIA agent [[Dan Mitrione]]. At two torture centers, the House of Death in Pétropolis and the Kerosene Nightclub in São Paulo, almost everyone who was tortured died.

On April 11 Castelo Branco, one of the organizers of the coup, was elected president. By decrees of military authorities and presidential decrees, the constitution of 1946 was practically abrogated, political parties were dissolved, the National Congress, state apparatus, army, educational institutions were purged, and control over trade unions was established. The Branco government (1964-67) disbanded the political parties and in 1966 it decreed the formation of two political groups: the National Union of Renewal and the Brazilian Democratic Movement, which was the legal opposition. In favor of U.S. interests, the government repealed the law restricting the export of profits from the country by foreign enterprises, severed diplomatic relations with Cuba, and participated in the U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic. The Branco government repeatedly expressed solidarity with the U.S. ruling circles that unleashed military action against Vietnam in 1964, and provided material support to the Saigon regime in South Vietnam.

In March 1967 General A. da Costa e Silva became president. The new government (1967-69) represented basically the same military-political and social forces as the previous military government. The internal political course remained essentially unchanged. In 1967-68, the student movement and workers' struggle against the military regime and its wage blocking policy intensified. Part of the Catholic clergy also opposed the government. The so-called Broad Front of the Legal Opposition was also a political opponent of the government. In April 1968, the government banned its activities. Contradictions within the government and its main supporter, the armed forces, became acute. In December 1968, the parliament was dissolved, and the power went to the President. At the beginning of 1969 some more decrees were issued to expand the President's authority, but all that did not lead to normalization of the political situation in the country. In August 1969, due to the illness of Costa e Silva, power passed into the hands of a triumvirate of military ministers, which was in fact a military coup. In October, General [[Emílio Garrastazu Médici]] took power and ruled until 1974. He abolished the National Congress, gave all power to the presidency, and banned public demonstrations. In the mid-1970s, ten members of the [[Brazilian Communist Party]] (PCB) Central Committee were murdered and their bodies were hidden in a river. Almost all leadership of the PCB was arrested and 2,000 militants were tortured. PCB leader [[Elson Costa]] was tortured for more than 20 days and was burned alive after refusing to give information.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":0" />

Institutional Act 5 was repealed in 1978<ref name=":0" /> and military rule ended in 1985.<ref>{{News citation|author=Nicholas Stender|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]|title=Bolsonaro’s coup threats rejected by people of Brazil|date=2021-09-08|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/bolsonaros-coup-threats-rejected-by-people-of-brazil/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220082726/https://www.liberationnews.org/bolsonaros-coup-threats-rejected-by-people-of-brazil/|archive-date=2021-12-20|retrieved=2022-06-21}}</ref>

=== Recent history (1985–present) ===
In 2002, [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] of the [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers' Party]] was elected president after building an alliance with centrists. Lula enacted social programs that reduced poverty and increased access to higher education. In 2010, Lula was succeeded by [[Dilma Rousseff]]. In 2014, an economic crisis began in Brazil and austerity measures were enacted. The right organized the impeachment of Rousseff and her vice president, Michel Temer, took power in 2016. In 2018, Lula was arrested and prevented from running for president. A left-wing coalition that included the PCB and the [[Socialism and Liberty Party]] supported the Workers' Party candidate [[Fernando Haddad]]. Haddad lost the election with 44.87% of the vote, and [[Jair Bolsonaro]] of the far-right "Brazil above Everything, God above Everyone" coalition won with 55.13% of the vote.<ref>{{News citation|author=Silvio Rodrigues|newspaper=Liberation School|title=Bolsonaro: A danger to Brazil, Latin America, and the whole world|date=2019-01-23|url=https://www.liberationschool.org/bolsonaro-a-danger-to-brazil-latin-america-and-the-whole-world/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117093248/https://www.liberationschool.org/bolsonaro-a-danger-to-brazil-latin-america-and-the-whole-world/|archive-date=2021-01-17|retrieved=2022-06-05}}</ref>

== Art<ref>{{Citation|author=Craven David|year=2002|title=Art and Revolution in Latin America, 1910-1990}}</ref> ==
In the 1920s there was a new visual art of Brazil (one of its sources - the movement "Week of Modern Art", Sao Paulo, 1922), in which the quest in the spirit of social realism is intertwined with subjectivist experiments, In painting next to the majestic folk images of C. Portinari and E. di Cavalcanti, folk and bright decorative paintings of Tarsila do Amaral and self-taught artist Janira, expressionism (L. Segal), abstractionism and the latest modernist trends were developed. The democratic graphic art of Brazil (O. Goeldi, K. Skliar, R. Katz) is characterized by spiritual expressiveness. For sculpture (B. Giorgi, V. Breshere) oscillation between vital national images and abstract fantasies is characteristic. In the decorative arts ceramics and painting of fabrics are distinguished.

Diverse types of folk art Brazil - Negro (figurines, multicolored clothing, household utensils in the traditions of African art) and especially indigenous (figural ceramics of Karage people, wooden figurines of Cadiuveo people, polychrome painting of huts of Tukano people, carved zoomorphic Carib benches, patterned weaving, feather products, weaving from palm leaves and many others). Common types of folk dwellings (including indigenous dwellings) are dugouts, huts (piled in humid areas), canopies made of palm leaves.

== Economy ==
Brazil exports $28.6B of soybeans (13.36%), $26.5B of iron ore (12.38%), $19.8B of crude petroleum (9.25%), $8.95B of raw sugar (4.18%), $6.69B of bovine meat (3.12%) and $123.5B of other products, totaling $214B in exports. These exports flow mostly towards China ($67.9B), United States ($21.9B), [[Argentine Republic|Argentina]] ($8.57B), [[Netherlands]] ($6.7B), and [[Canada]] ($4.39B).<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC)|title=Brazil (BRA) exports, imports, and trade partners|date=2020|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/bra}}</ref>

== Politics ==

=== Class struggle in Brazil===
[[File:19th June Brazil São Paulo.png|thumb|Thousands took up the streets of São Paulo against the Federal Government in 19th June, 2021]]
In June 19th, 2021, protesters in over 400 cities in protest of the [[Fascism|fascist]] Jair Bolsonaro government. Militants and activists gathered safely, respecting social isolation guidelines related to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Textcite|author=Beatriz Drague Ramos|year=2021-06-21|title=Por vacinas para todos e contra Bolsonaro, manifestantes vão às ruas neste sábado|pdf=|publisher=Ponte Jornalismo|lg=|trans=For vaccines for all and against Bolsonaro, demonstrators take to the streets this Saturday|translang=Portuguese|web=https://ponte.org/por-vacinas-para-todos-e-contra-bolsonaro-manifestantes-vao-as-ruas-neste-sabado/}}</ref>

=== Police brutality ===
The Brazilian police killed at least 645 people in Rio de Janeiro in 2015. The police commit 20% of murders in Rio, and 80% of their victims are youth of African descent.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]|title=Brazil intensifies genocide against Africans in preparation for 2016 Olympic Games|date=2016-08-04|url=https://www.theburningspear.com/2016/08/Brazil-intensifies-genocide-against-Africans-in-preparation-for-2016-Olympic-Games|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816153336/https://www.theburningspear.com/2016/08/Brazil-intensifies-genocide-against-Africans-in-preparation-for-2016-Olympic-Games|archive-date=2021-08-16|retrieved=2022-08-27}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==

== Demographics ==

== Culture ==

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Countries]]
[[Category:Global south]]
[[Category:Latin American countries]]

Federative Republic of Brazil

2022-11-15T19:07:53Z

GheorgheCraciun: Added sources

{{Infobox country
| name = Federative Republic of Brazil
| native_name = República Federativa do Brasil
| image_flag = File:Flag of Brazil.svg
| image_coat = File:Coat of arms of Brazil.svg
| image_map = Brazil (ortographic projection).svg
| map_width = 220px
| capital = Brasília
| largest_city = São Paulo
| government_type = [[Federation|Federal]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[Bourgeois state|bourgeois state]]
| established_event1 = Proclamation of the Empire of Brazil
| established_date1 = 1822 September 7th
| established_event2 = Proclamation of the Republic of Brazil
| established_date2 = 1889 November 15th
| established_event3 = US-backed right-wing military dictatorship
| established_date3 = 1964 April 1st
| established_event4 = Redemocratization
| established_date4 = 1985 March 15th
| population_estimate = 211,755,692<ref>Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (2020). [https://www.in.gov.br/web/dou/-/portaria-n-pr-254-de-25-de-agosto-de-2020-274382852 Estimates published in official government documents].</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2020
| labour_force = 86.621 million<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy">CIA World Factbook (2020). ''[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/#economy Brazil – The world factbook (economy)]''</ref>
| labour_force_participation = 56.8%<ref>Trading economics (2021). ''[https://tradingeconomics.com/brazil/labor-force-participation-rate Brazil labor force participation rate]'' </ref>
| labour_occupation = agriculture: 9.4% industry: 32.1% services: 58.5%<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| unemployment = 14.7%<ref>Trading economics (2021). ''[https://tradingeconomics.com/brazil/unemployment-rate Brazil unemployment rate]'' </ref>
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 = Jair Bolsonaro
| leader_title2 = President of the Chamber of Deputies
| leader_name2 = Arthur Lira
| leader_title3 = President of the Federal Senate
| leader_name3 = Rodrigo Pacheco
| leader_title4 = President of the Supreme Federal Court
| leader_name4 = Luiz Fux
| GDP_nominal_year = 2019
| GDP_nominal = US$1.84 trillion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=BR GDP (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = US$8,717.18<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=BR GDP per capita (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| export_year = 2019
| export = US$263 billion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.CD?locations=BR Exports of goods and services (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| export_commodities = soybeans, crude petroleum, iron, corn, wood pulp products<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| export_partners = [[People's Republic of China|China]] (28%), [[United States of America|United States]] (13%)<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| import_year = 2019
| import = US$269 billion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.IMP.GNFS.CD?locations=BR Imports of goods and services (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| import_commodities = refined petroleum, vehicle parts, crude petroleum, integrated circuits, pesticides<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| import_partners = [[People's Republic of China|China]] (21%), [[United States of America|United States]] (18%), [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]] (6%)
| external_debt = US$684.6 billion
| external_debt_rank = 20th
| Gini = 53.9%
| Gini_year = 2018
| Gini_rank = 9th
| HDI = 0.765
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_rank = 84th
| currency = Brazilian real
| currency_code = BRL
}}
'''Brazil''', officially the '''Federative Republic of Brazil''', is a country in [[Iberoamerica]]. It is the most populous country in its continent. It is a [[Dependency|dependent]] [[Capitalism|capitalist]] country.<ref>{{Citation|author=Ruy Mauro Marini|year=1973|title=Dialética da dependência|mia=https://www.marxists.org/portugues/marini/1973/mes/dialetica.htm}}</ref>

Since 2019, the country has been under the government of [[Jair Bolsonaro]], who promoted and enacted policies of [[privatization]] of [[state-owned enterprises]] led by the [[Chicago Boys]] member Paulo Guedes. It is a de facto military, [[Fascism|fascist]] government, composed of 6.1 thousand military personnel in public offices,<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Correio Braziliense|title=Segundo TCU, 6,1 mil militares ocupam cargos no governo|date=2020-07-17|url=https://www.correiobraziliense.com.br/app/noticia/economia/2020/07/17/internas_economia,873137/segundo-tcu-6-1-mil-militares-ocupam-cargos-no-governo.shtml|retrieved=2022-07-16}}</ref> more than 2.3 thousand irregularly.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Carta Capital|title=CGU aponta pagamentos e ocupações irregulares de 2,3 mil militares|date=2022-07-12|url=https://www.cartacapital.com.br/politica/cgu-aponta-pagamentos-e-ocupacoes-irregulares-de-23-mil-militares/|retrieved=2022-07-16}}</ref> Attaching particular importance to strengthening its position in Iberoamerica, the Brazilian government seeks to act as a leader of countries on the American continent.

== History ==

=== Pre-colonization (~60,000 BCE – 1500)<ref name=":1">{{Citation|author=Rio de J.|year=1928—55|title=Documentos históricos, v. 1—109}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Citation|author=Rio de J.|year=1876—1957|title=Anais da Biblioteca nacional, v. I—75}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Citation|author=Rocha Pombu|year=1962|title=History of Brazil}}</ref> ===
The appearance of man on the territory of Brazil refers to the Neolithic Age. Before the beginning of the 16th century, the territory of Brazil was inhabited by indigenous tribes: Tupi Guarani, Tupinambas, Botokuds, Tamoyos, Koroados, etc. All of them were at the stage of tribal organization and lived in small communities. The tribal aristocracy was just beginning to form, and most of the tribes were nomadic. The Tupi-Guaranis led a settled way of life. In their communities priests and chiefs were distinguished, who had some personal property, including domestic slaves.

=== Colonization period (1500–1822)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ===
In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared the land he discovered to be the possession of Portugal. The Portuguese took the valuable mahogany pau-brasil (pau-brasil, hence the name of the country) from Brazil In the 30s of the 16th century the territory of Brazil coast was divided into 13 capitals which lands the donatarii - natives of the Portuguese feudal nobility - received as beneficiaries from the king. In 1549 a governorship general was established in Brazil with its capital in Salvador (Bahia). In the same year the Jesuits appeared in the colony. They established Indian settlements (missions), which were a branch of the extensive feudal organization of the Jesuit order with elements of slavery and patriarchal clan relations. The conquest of the territory of Brazil took place in the context of an intense struggle of Portugal with its rivals, mainly France and Holland. In 1630 the Dutch managed to capture the territory of the Pernambuco captaincy, but in 1654 they were expelled from the territory of Brazil On the colonized territory, from the 16th century, big landowners' estates (sesmaria) with the use of feudal and slave forms of exploitation of Indians and blacks started to form (the first parties of blacks were brought to Brazil in the 30-ies of the 16th century).

Production of goods imported from the metropolis (wheat, vegetable oil, wine, etc.) was forbidden in the colony. Only cotton, rice, corn were cultivated, but sugar cane was the main crop. Sugar cane plantations required large amount of labor. From the late 17th century the importation of slaves from Africa intensified, especially in connection with the discovery of gold and diamonds. The brutal exploitation of slaves on the plantations led to a large mortality rate. Indians and blacks put up stubborn resistance to their oppressors. In 1630 escaped slaves created in one of the remote regions of the Pernambuco state - the Republic of Palmaris that existed till 1697. In the 2nd half of the 17th century Portugal continued the centralization of the colonial government and the prohibitive trade policy. The local government had limited power, trade with the colony was given to a small number of companies, the main role among which played the Portuguese General Company of the Brazilian Trade, founded in 1649. From 1658 it raised sharply the taxes collected in the colony, in 1665 it introduced a salt monopoly. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the first speeches of colonists-Brazilians against the Portuguese authorities took place (1684, 1720). To contain the growth of discontent, the Portuguese government allowed the foundation of manufactories and expelled the Jesuits (1759). However at the end of the 18th century Portugal forbade the foundation of manufactures, the building of ships, and printing.

Gold and diamond mining became very important during this period, turning Brazil into the richest colony in Portugal. The so-called gold rush stimulated the foundation of new cities and the building of roads. Rio de Janeiro became the main point linking Brazil with the outside world. In 1763, the capital was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The contradictions between Banyan and the metropolis aggravated at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, which put all possible obstacles in the way of its economic, political, and cultural development. In 1789, a conspiracy led by Tiradentis was uncovered in the province of Minas Gerais. The conspirators intended to establish an independent republic and the gradual abolition of slavery. In 1797 rebellions against Portugal broke out in the province of Bahia, in which soldiers and the urban poor, including mulattoes and Negroes, participated. In 1807 in connection with the occupation of Portugal by Napoleon's troops, the Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro. The stay of the court had as a consequence a number of innovations. The captaincies came to be called provinces. Brazilian ports were opened to trade with other countries. Newspapers, magazines, a Brazilian bank, a national library and museum were founded. The royal court depended entirely on British patronage. By the treaty of 1810 Great Britain obtained great advantages in trade with Brazil The stay in Brazil of the royal court, the Portuguese army, English advisers and the expenses connected with it increased the tax oppression and caused a further growth of discontent among the working masses of Brazil with Portuguese domination. In 1815 Brazil received the status of a kingdom, becoming part of the "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarve". Formally, Brazil ceased to be a colony, but Portuguese authorities were still in charge in Brazil The movement against the rule of the colonizers did not weaken. In 1817, a rebellion broke out in the province of Pernambuco which then spread to Ceará, Paraíba, Maranhão and Alagoas. The rebels proclaimed the province of Pernambuco a republic, formed a provisional government, and appealed to all the people of Brazil to end Portuguese rule and establish an independent Brazilian republic; the revolutionary government lasted 72 days.

The bourgeois revolution of 1820 in Portugal led to a new upsurge in the movement for the independence of Brazil King João VI was forced to leave Brazil (1821), leaving his son Pedro I. as regent of Brazil The liberation movement under the slogan "Freedom or Death!" spread throughout Brazil On September 7, 1822, Pedro I. declared Brazil an independent empire. The day became a national holiday.

=== Empire era (1822–1889)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Citation|author=Meade, Teresa|year=2016|title=A History of Modern Latin America-1800 to the Present}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Barman, Roderick J|year=1988|title=Brazil The Forging of a Nation, 1798–1852}}</ref> ===
In March 1824 the first constitution of the country came into force, according to which Brazil was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Portugal was forced to recognize the independence of Brazil (1825). The three-hundred-year colonial period ended, but the monarchy in Brazil survived. Under Emperors Pedro I of Brazil (1822-31) and his son Pedro II (1831-89) the country became economically dependent on Great Britain. In the peculiar combination of slave-holding, feudal and nascent capitalist production relations, slave-holding relations prevailed in the first half of the 19th century, especially in the main branches of Brazil economy: coffee and sugar production and in the mining industry. The political development of Brazil was marked by the persistent struggle of the masses against the monarchical regime and reaction, for a federal democratic republic and the abolition of slavery. In 1824-30, there were continuous uprisings of Negro slaves in the province of Bahia. In June 1831 a popular republican uprising broke out in the province of Rio de Janeiro. In 1833-1849 a wave of armed popular uprisings broke out in most provinces demanding the establishment of a democratic republic. The largest were the "farrapos" (ragamuffins) in the province of Rio Grande do Sul (1835- 1845) and the "praieiros" (coast-dwellers) in the province of Pernambuco (1848-1849).

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, with the abolition of the slave trade, slave labour was gradually replaced by free labour. The new production relations led to a more noticeable development of industry and agriculture. The process of formation of capitalist relations was accelerated by the growth of European immigration that began in the 50s and became particularly widespread in the 80s-90s.

In 1865-70 Brazil in alliance with Argentina and Uruguay fought a war for the dismemberment of Paraguay. During the war, the abolitionist movement intensified. In 1888, the so-called Golden Law on the abolition of slavery was issued. Anti-monarchist republican movement, which developed in parallel with the abolitionist movement, was led by the Republican Party (founded in 1869). There were popular anti-monarchist demonstrations in the country. On November 15, 1889 Emperor Pedro II was overthrown and Brazil was proclaimed a federal republic. The Constituent Assembly convened in February 1891 adopted a constitution similar to the U.S. Constitution. The provinces were transformed into states. The capital, Rio de Janeiro, was made a federal district.

=== Republic era (1889–1964)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Citation|author=Glinkin A. N.|year=1959|title=The Modern History of Brazil}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Citation|author=Koval B. I.|year=1967|title=History of the Brazilian Proletariat (1857-1967)}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Sivolobov A. M.|year=1959|title=Agrarian relations in modern Brazil}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Faco P.|year=1962|title=Brazil of the XX century}}</ref> ===
With the proclamation of the republic, political power in the country remained in the hands of the landlords and the big bourgeoisie, connected with foreign, mainly English, capital. The government, protecting the interests of the ruling classes, brutally cracked down on the democratic movement. In 1896-97 a peasant land movement broke out in Bahia, near Canudus. It was suppressed by the government forces, but the peasants' fight for the land continued. With the abolition of slavery the capitalist development of Brazil accelerated considerably. The rapid growth of enterprises in towns led to an increase in the number of workers. The first trade unions and workers' organizations began to appear at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. In 1892 a workers' congress was held in Rio de Janeiro, which attempted to establish a workers' party. The Socialist Center was founded in Santos that year and led the May Day demonstrations of 1895 in Santos and São Paulo. By 1896 there were several Marxist circles in the country. A socialist newspaper, Sosialista (O Socialista), began to be published in São Paulo. In 1905-07 there were workers' demonstrations and strikes in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Santos, and in 1906 a workers' congress was held in Rio de Janeiro.

Foreign capital, which had penetrated the economy of Brazil, directed it in a direction beneficial to its interests. English and American monopolies seized fertile land. Coffee, cotton, and sugar took a leading place in the economy of Brazil In 1910 Brazil became a member of the Pan American Union. From that time American capital began to penetrate strongly into the Brazil economy, becoming after the World War I, 1914-1918 the main rival of British capital. From 1917 Brazil participated in the war on the side of the Entente.

Under the influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, the workers' movement in Brazil began to rise. In mass demonstrations and rallies workers openly expressed their sympathy for the ideas of the Russian revolution. In large cities, Marxist groups (socialist and communist circles and leagues) began to be created. In March 1922 the Brazilian Communist Party (BCP) was founded. In July 1922 there was an uprising of the capital's garrison in the Copacabana Fortress. In July 1924 the garrison of São Paulo rebelled. The city's masses supported the rebels. The rebels seized the city and held it for three weeks. Under the influence of events in Sao Paulo rebellions broke out in many states of Brazil. L. C. Prestes, who led the rebellion in the south of Brazil, led with continuous fighting the rebel column to the N. of the country (October 1924-February 1927). The governments of A. Bernardis (1922-26) and V. Luis Pereira (1926-30) suppressed the uprisings.

The economic crisis of 1929-33 hit Brazil with great force. During the crisis years, 2.4 million tons of coffee were destroyed as prices for all of Brazil's main exports - coffee, cocoa, cotton, and livestock products - plummeted on the world market. The working class suffered from unemployment. The crisis revealed the extreme backwardness of the social structure and Brazil's dependence on foreign capital. On the eve of the presidential elections of 1930, two hostile political factions had formed: the Conservative Concentration, which represented the interests of the landowners who relied on English imperialism, and the Liberal Alliance, which represented the bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisized landowners connected with the US imperialists. As a result of the armed struggle for power in November 1930 the Liberal Alliance supporter, J. Vargas, won and formed an interim government. In fact, a dictatorship was established in Brazil Vargas, who, depending on the situation, changed the methods of government in the interests of the bourgeoisie and landlords. The German and Italian monopolies intensively penetrated the economy of Brazil German monopolies acquired controlling stakes in a number of large manufacturing enterprises, iron mines, and vast lands in Riachan (on the N.-E.); the "German Bank for South America" established in Brazil 300 of its branches. The economic expansion of German imperialism strengthened fascist elements in the political life of the country. The Fascist party, the Integralist Action (founded in 1933), was active in Brazil The working class and the masses offered resolute resistance to the onslaught of fascism. In March 1935 the anti-fascist forces united into the National Liberation Alliance (NLA), which put forward the task of fighting against fascism and imperialism and for the implementation of an agrarian reform. In July the government forbade the activities of the NLA. In November 1935 armed uprisings took place under the leadership of the ELA in Rio de Janeiro, Niteroi, Recife, and Natal, drowned in blood. Brazil was declared a state of siege, tens of thousands of revolutionaries were arrested, including L. C. Prestes and other Communist Party leaders. The organization of corporate unions dependent on the government was intensified. In 1936 Vargas issued decrees on minimum wages, nationalization of the transport company Lloyd Brazileiro, owned by English capital, pensions for industrial workers, and in 1938 on nationalization of oil sources and wage increases for certain categories of workers. These measures were conditioned both by the struggle of workers for their rights and interests and by the development of capitalism in Brazil As a spokesman for the bourgeoisie, Vargas understood the need to increase the role of the state for the country's economic development.

In November 1937 Vargas dissolved the congress and promulgated a constitution proclaiming Brazil "a new state." In December, all political parties were dissolved. Vargas launched a social demagogy, portraying himself as the founder of a "new state of justice.

During [[World War II]], 1939-45, the penetration of U.S. imperialism into Brazil intensified. In January 1941 an agreement was signed to send a U.S. military mission to Brazil In January 1942, Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with Germany and Italy and in August 1942 declared war on them (Brazil declared war on Japan on June 6, 1945). The defeat of the Fascist powers gave a powerful impetus to the development of the democratic movement in Brazil Under the pressure of the masses, the Vargas government had granted amnesty to political prisoners in the beginning of 1945, had allowed the political parties, including the Communist Party, to work and had established diplomatic relations with the USSR (April 2, 1945). In the same year several political parties were founded: the Social-Democratic Party, reflecting the interests of large latifundists; the National Democratic Union, uniting broad sections of the national bourgeoisie, led by the leaders of the so-called Western, anti-communist orientation, and the Brazilian Trabalist Party, representing the middle and petty bourgeoisie and a considerable number of workers.

Frightened by the growth of the democratic movement, the most reactionary circles in Brazil, closely affiliated with the United States, decided to overthrow the Vargas government. On October 29 Generals G. Monteiro and E. G. Dutra organized a military coup. Parliamentary and presidential elections were held in December, with considerable success for the Communists, who for the first time nominated their candidates in national elections. The government was headed by General E. G. Dutra (1946-51). In 1946 a new constitution was adopted, reflecting some of the democratic gains of the workers, the rights of the people to the subsoil wealth of Brazil However, already in May 1947 reaction went on the offensive. The government banned the activities of the BKP, the Union of Communist Youth (founded in 1943) and the Trade Union Confederation of Workers (founded in 1946). In October 1947 Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR, and in May 1949 the Movement of Supporters of Peace was banned in the country. The Dutra government followed the policy of militarization and the Cold War. U.S. direct investment in Brazil rose from $323 million in 1946 to $803 million in 1951. The capitulation to U.S. imperialism and the repressive regime aroused popular discontent. As a result of the unfolding nationalist movement, the Vargas government (1951-54) came to power again. Due to the poor state of the finances, Vargas received as early as 1952 a $300 million loan from the United States and opened up access to U.S. private capital investment. At the same time, in 1953 the Vargas government created the state oil company Petrobras, which established a state monopoly (with the participation of Brazilian private capital) for exploration, production, and refining of Brazilian oil, and in April 1954 it submitted to Congress a bill to create the state company Electrobras. The labor movement in Brazil was intensifying. In 1953 800 thousand workers took part in the strike struggle (in the preceding 5 years an average of 200-300 thousand people). The trade unions united over 1.3 million workers. In May 1954, under the pressure of the masses Vargas declared that the minimum wage of workers and employees was to be doubled in comparison with 1951. The reactionary circles of the latifundists, big capitalists and the military believed that Vargas's policy stimulated the development of mass popular uprisings and threatened the existing order. In August, a meeting of air force generals decided to demand Vargas's resignation as "the only means" to resolve the "national crisis." Vargas committed suicide. The military and reaction tried to establish a dictatorial regime in Brazil The people thwarted their plans with mass demonstrations. The government of J. Kubicek de Oliveira (1956-60) came to power, representing both patriotic figures and reactionary politicians connected with foreign, mainly American, capital. Often reactionaries were able to exert decisive influence on government policy. In 1957 the Kubitschek government signed an agreement with the United States on giving up Fernando de Noronha for a five-year term as a U.S. military base.

In the 1950s, Brazil had an automobile industry, increased oil production and refining, ferrous metal smelting, cement production, and power generation. From agrarian Brazil was transforming into an agrarian-industrial country with large industrial centers: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Recife, etc. The opening of the new capital (April 21, 1960) - Brasilia - signaled the economic strengthening of the Brazilian bourgeoisie. However, many important sectors of the Brazilian economy remained in the hands of foreign capital, mainly the United States. Latifundia and backward relations persisted in agriculture.

In the 1960 elections, with the support of the bourgeoisie, latifundists, the Catholic Church, some social democrats and the Brazilian Trabalist Party, J. Cuadros was elected president. The Cuadros government charted a more independent foreign policy, took steps to establish diplomatic and trade relations with the USSR and other dependant countries, and strengthened the country's financial position. This caused discontent among reactionary circles connected with American monopolies. Under their pressure, Cuadros was forced to resign in August 1961. Nationalist forces opposed to the desire of reaction to establish a dictatorship in the country, achieved the accession to the presidency of Vice-President J. Goulart. Goulart's government which came to power in September 1961 (1961-64) restored diplomatic relations with the USSR. In October - November 1961, the National Liberation Front was founded which united the nationalist and patriotic forces of the country. In its activities, the Goulart government relied mainly on the national bourgeoisie and nationalist forces. It put forward a program of agrarian, financial, and banking reforms, education reform, etc. From December 1963 to March 1964, the Goulart government passed decrees restricting the export of profits from the country (not more than 10%) on invested foreign capital, establishing a state monopoly on oil and petroleum product imports, nationalizing oil refineries, nationalizing uncultivated land located within a 10-km strip along state railroads and highways and waterworks, canceling mining concessions (if companies do not exploit mines) and granting exclusive rights In the field of foreign policy, the Goulart government advocated general and complete disarmament and the peaceful coexistence of states with different socio-economic systems.

In 1961, [[Centrism|centrist]] president [[Jânio Quadro|Jânio Quadros]] resigned after seven months in office, leading to his [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] vice president, [[João Goulart]], becoming president. Goulart supported agrarian reform and universal suffrage and was supported by Catholic bishops and members of student [[Trade union|unions]]. The pro-imperialist bourgeoisie, connected with the U.S. monopolies, the latifundists, a certain part of the army, above all the reactionary generals and high officers, as well as the reactionary upper class of the Catholic Church, strongly opposed the measures of the Goulart government. Taking advantage of the ferment in the army, reaction turned to open action. The United States turned on him after he refused to ban leftists from his cabinet and the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] began funding his opponents in October 1962.<ref>{{Citation|author=Matias Spektor|year=2018|title=The United States and the 1964 Brazilian Military Coup|page=1–3|pdf=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4307854/mod_resource/content/1/Spektor%20US%20Military%20Coup%20in%20Brazil.pdf|publisher=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History}}</ref> On March 31, 1964 a military mutiny broke out in the state of Minas Gerais. As a result of the coup d'etat, a political-military group led by General U. Castelo Branco representing the interests of large landowners and financial-industrial groups connected with American monopolies came to power.<ref name=":0">{{News citation|author=[[Edmilson Costa]]|newspaper=[[Liberation School]]|title=Remembering the Years of Lead under Brazil’s military rule: AI-5 never again!|date=2019-12-23|url=https://www.liberationschool.org/remembering-the-years-of-lead-under-brazils-military-rule-ai-5-never-again/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515161458/https://liberationschool.org/remembering-the-years-of-lead-under-brazils-military-rule-ai-5-never-again/|archive-date=2021-05-15|retrieved=2022-06-21}}</ref>

=== Military dictatorship (1964–1985)<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> ===
Soon after the coup, the military abolished the 1946 constitution and banned the [[General Confederation of Workers]] (CGT) and [[National Students' Union]] (UNE). Other [[Trade union|unions]] were allowed, but their leadership was controlled by the government. In 1968, military leader [[Artur da Costa e Silva]] passed Institutional Act No. 5, removing all limits on the military dictatorship's power. More than 300 politicians, including former presidents Goulart, Cuadros, and Kubitschek, as well as BKP Secretary General L. K. Prestes, were deprived of their political rights for 10 years under this act. Under the dictatorship, 50,000 people were arrested, 7,000 were exiled, and over 400 were killed. Brazil's intelligence service, the [[National Information Service|SNI]], was trained to torture dissidents by CIA agent [[Dan Mitrione]]. At two torture centers, the House of Death in Pétropolis and the Kerosene Nightclub in São Paulo, almost everyone who was tortured died.

On April 11 Castelo Branco, one of the organizers of the coup, was elected president. By decrees of military authorities and presidential decrees, the constitution of 1946 was practically abrogated, political parties were dissolved, the National Congress, state apparatus, army, educational institutions were purged, and control over trade unions was established. The Branco government (1964-67) disbanded the political parties and in 1966 it decreed the formation of two political groups: the National Union of Renewal and the Brazilian Democratic Movement, which was the legal opposition. In favor of U.S. interests, the government repealed the law restricting the export of profits from the country by foreign enterprises, severed diplomatic relations with Cuba, and participated in the U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic. The Branco government repeatedly expressed solidarity with the U.S. ruling circles that unleashed military action against Vietnam in 1964, and provided material support to the Saigon regime in South Vietnam.

In March 1967 General A. da Costa e Silva became president. The new government (1967-69) represented basically the same military-political and social forces as the previous military government. The internal political course remained essentially unchanged. In 1967-68, the student movement and workers' struggle against the military regime and its wage blocking policy intensified. Part of the Catholic clergy also opposed the government. The so-called Broad Front of the Legal Opposition was also a political opponent of the government. In April 1968, the government banned its activities. Contradictions within the government and its main supporter, the armed forces, became acute. In December 1968, the parliament was dissolved, and the power went to the President. At the beginning of 1969 some more decrees were issued to expand the President's authority, but all that did not lead to normalization of the political situation in the country. In August 1969, due to the illness of Costa e Silva, power passed into the hands of a triumvirate of military ministers, which was in fact a military coup. In October, General [[Emílio Garrastazu Médici]] took power and ruled until 1974. He abolished the National Congress, gave all power to the presidency, and banned public demonstrations. In the mid-1970s, ten members of the [[Brazilian Communist Party]] (PCB) Central Committee were murdered and their bodies were hidden in a river. Almost all leadership of the PCB was arrested and 2,000 militants were tortured. PCB leader [[Elson Costa]] was tortured for more than 20 days and was burned alive after refusing to give information.<ref name=":0" />

Institutional Act 5 was repealed in 1978<ref name=":0" /> and military rule ended in 1985.<ref>{{News citation|author=Nicholas Stender|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]|title=Bolsonaro’s coup threats rejected by people of Brazil|date=2021-09-08|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/bolsonaros-coup-threats-rejected-by-people-of-brazil/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220082726/https://www.liberationnews.org/bolsonaros-coup-threats-rejected-by-people-of-brazil/|archive-date=2021-12-20|retrieved=2022-06-21}}</ref>

=== Recent history (1985–present) ===
In 2002, [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] of the [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers' Party]] was elected president after building an alliance with centrists. Lula enacted social programs that reduced poverty and increased access to higher education. In 2010, Lula was succeeded by [[Dilma Rousseff]]. In 2014, an economic crisis began in Brazil and austerity measures were enacted. The right organized the impeachment of Rousseff and her vice president, Michel Temer, took power in 2016. In 2018, Lula was arrested and prevented from running for president. A left-wing coalition that included the PCB and the [[Socialism and Liberty Party]] supported the Workers' Party candidate [[Fernando Haddad]]. Haddad lost the election with 44.87% of the vote, and [[Jair Bolsonaro]] of the far-right "Brazil above Everything, God above Everyone" coalition won with 55.13% of the vote.<ref>{{News citation|author=Silvio Rodrigues|newspaper=Liberation School|title=Bolsonaro: A danger to Brazil, Latin America, and the whole world|date=2019-01-23|url=https://www.liberationschool.org/bolsonaro-a-danger-to-brazil-latin-america-and-the-whole-world/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117093248/https://www.liberationschool.org/bolsonaro-a-danger-to-brazil-latin-america-and-the-whole-world/|archive-date=2021-01-17|retrieved=2022-06-05}}</ref>

== Art<ref>{{Citation|author=Craven David|year=2002|title=Art and Revolution in Latin America, 1910-1990}}</ref> ==
In the 1920s there was a new visual art of Brazil (one of its sources - the movement "Week of Modern Art", Sao Paulo, 1922), in which the quest in the spirit of social realism is intertwined with subjectivist experiments, In painting next to the majestic folk images of C. Portinari and E. di Cavalcanti, folk and bright decorative paintings of Tarsila do Amaral and self-taught artist Janira, expressionism (L. Segal), abstractionism and the latest modernist trends were developed. The democratic graphic art of Brazil (O. Goeldi, K. Skliar, R. Katz) is characterized by spiritual expressiveness. For sculpture (B. Giorgi, V. Breshere) oscillation between vital national images and abstract fantasies is characteristic. In the decorative arts ceramics and painting of fabrics are distinguished.

Diverse types of folk art Brazil - Negro (figurines, multicolored clothing, household utensils in the traditions of African art) and especially indigenous (figural ceramics of Karage people, wooden figurines of Cadiuveo people, polychrome painting of huts of Tukano people, carved zoomorphic Carib benches, patterned weaving, feather products, weaving from palm leaves and many others). Common types of folk dwellings (including indigenous dwellings) are dugouts, huts (piled in humid areas), canopies made of palm leaves.

== Economy ==
Brazil exports $28.6B of soybeans (13.36%), $26.5B of iron ore (12.38%), $19.8B of crude petroleum (9.25%), $8.95B of raw sugar (4.18%), $6.69B of bovine meat (3.12%) and $123.5B of other products, totaling $214B in exports. These exports flow mostly towards China ($67.9B), United States ($21.9B), [[Argentine Republic|Argentina]] ($8.57B), [[Netherlands]] ($6.7B), and [[Canada]] ($4.39B).<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC)|title=Brazil (BRA) exports, imports, and trade partners|date=2020|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/bra}}</ref>

== Politics ==

=== Class struggle in Brazil===
[[File:19th June Brazil São Paulo.png|thumb|Thousands took up the streets of São Paulo against the Federal Government in 19th June, 2021]]
In June 19th, 2021, protesters in over 400 cities in protest of the [[Fascism|fascist]] Jair Bolsonaro government. Militants and activists gathered safely, respecting social isolation guidelines related to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Textcite|author=Beatriz Drague Ramos|year=2021-06-21|title=Por vacinas para todos e contra Bolsonaro, manifestantes vão às ruas neste sábado|pdf=|publisher=Ponte Jornalismo|lg=|trans=For vaccines for all and against Bolsonaro, demonstrators take to the streets this Saturday|translang=Portuguese|web=https://ponte.org/por-vacinas-para-todos-e-contra-bolsonaro-manifestantes-vao-as-ruas-neste-sabado/}}</ref>

=== Police brutality ===
The Brazilian police killed at least 645 people in Rio de Janeiro in 2015. The police commit 20% of murders in Rio, and 80% of their victims are youth of African descent.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]|title=Brazil intensifies genocide against Africans in preparation for 2016 Olympic Games|date=2016-08-04|url=https://www.theburningspear.com/2016/08/Brazil-intensifies-genocide-against-Africans-in-preparation-for-2016-Olympic-Games|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816153336/https://www.theburningspear.com/2016/08/Brazil-intensifies-genocide-against-Africans-in-preparation-for-2016-Olympic-Games|archive-date=2021-08-16|retrieved=2022-08-27}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==

== Demographics ==

== Culture ==

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Countries]]
[[Category:Global south]]
[[Category:Latin American countries]]

Fascism

2022-11-15T18:11:56Z

GheorgheCraciun: Removed Trotskyite, obsolete, disproven theory, as well as the for some reason existing shyness about Marxism that undermines the objectivity of the article

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1981-052-06A, Albert Speer spricht in Munitionsfabrik.jpg|thumb|The Roman Salute is commonly associated with Nazis and other Fascists.]]
'''Fascism''' (from Italian - bundle), ''[[capitalism]] in decay'',<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IG8Bczss228 What "Fascism is capitalism in decay" means]</ref> is the most [[reactionary]] [[Ideology|political current]] that emerged in [[Capitalism|capitalist]] countries during the [[general crisis of capitalism]]<ref>{{Citation|author=William I. Robinson|year=2019|title=Global capitalist crisis and twenty-first century fascism: beyond the Trump hype|quote=Fascism, whether in its classical 20th-century form or possible variants of 21st-century neo-fascism, is a particular response to capitalist crisis, such as that of the 1930s and the one that began with the financial meltdown of 2008. Global capitalism is facing an organic crisis involving an intractable structural dimension, that of overaccumulation, and a political dimension, that of legitimacy or hegemony that is approaching a general crisis of capitalist rule.|publisher=Science & Society, 83(2), 155–183|doi=10.1521/siso.2019.83.2.155}}</ref> and expresses the interests of the most aggressive circles of the [[Imperialism|imperialist]] bourgeoisie.<ref>{{Citation|author=Georgi Dimitrov|year=1935|title=The fascist offensive and the tasks of the Communist International in the struggle of the working class against fascism|chapter=The class character of fascism|page=|quote=No, fascism is not a power standing above class, nor government of the petty bourgeoisie or the lumpen-proletariat over finance capital. '''Fascism is the power of finance capital itself'''. It is the organization of terrorist vengeance against the working class and the revolutionary section of the peasantry and intelligentsia.|pdf=|city=|publisher=Main Report delivered at the 7th World Congress of the Communist International|isbn=|doi=|lg=|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/dimitrov/works/1935/08_02.htm|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref><ref>{{News citation|title=Encyclopedia of Marxism|url=https://www.marxists.org/glossary/terms/f/a.htm#fascism}}</ref> The [[Communist International (1919–1943)|Third International]] described fascism as the "open, terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary, most [[Chauvinism|chauvinistic]], and most imperialist elements of finance [[capital]]."<ref>{{Citation|author=[[George Dimitrov]]|year=1935|title=The Fascist Offensive and the Tasks of the Communist International in the Struggle of the Working Class against Fascism|chapter=Fascism and the Working Class|quote=Comrades, fascism in power was correctly described by the Thirteenth Plenum of the Executive Committee of the Communist International as the open terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary, most chauvinistic and most imperialist elements of finance capital.|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/dimitrov/works/1935/08_02.htm}}</ref>, a profoundly outdated slogan, given the nature of fascism today.

Characteristic of Fascism is the destruction or desire to destroy all [[Democracy|democratic freedoms]], extreme [[Nationalism|chauvinism]], the preparation and unleashing of [[War|wars]] of aggression and conquest, the justification and glorification of [[class society]] through [[class collaboration]], [[racism]], [[sexism]], and [[ableism]]. Fascist ideologues tend to promote [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]], irrational myths and manipulative distortions of truth to gather support of their popular base.

Throughout history, the fascists promoted policies that caused even more [[exploitation]] of the [[Proletariat|working class]] than capitalism was previously able to, allowing monopolies to take over every aspect of society. So much so that ''The Economist'' magazine introduced the term ''privatization'' in 1936, unseen in political discourse at the time, to describe [[German fascism|Nazi Germany]]'s economic policies.<ref>{{Citation|author=Germà Bel|year=2006|title=Retrospectives: the coining of “privatization” and Germany's National Socialist Party|chapter=|page=|pdf=|city=|publisher=Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(3), 187–194|isbn=|doi=10.1257/jep.20.3.187|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=|quote=}}</ref> The most well-known historical examples of fascism are [[Greater German Reich|Nazi Germany]] and [[Kingdom of Italy (1922-1943)|Fascist Italy]], but there have been various historical examples of fascism, such as [[Empire of Japan (1931-1947)|Shōwa Japan]], [[Spanish State (1939-1975)|Francoist Spain]] and [[Salzarist Portugal|Salazarist Portugal]]. Today, well-known examples are [[Turkey]], [[Islamic Republic of Iran|Iran]] and [[Russian Federation|Russia]].

==History==

===Origins===
The term "fascism" comes from the [[Italian Republic|Italian]] National Fascist Party,<ref group="lower-alpha">Italian: ''Partito Nazionale Fascista''</ref> a party founded by [[Benito Mussolini]] in 1921; whose practices and ideology would later define this [[reactionary]] movement as a whole. Mussolini inspired his fascism on the cult of [[Roman civilisation]] who, although they had no concept of fascism and did not care to predict the future two thousand years after their height, provided him with a perfect excuse to call back to the Roman Empire, which stretched far and wide and started in modern-day Italy. Thus the name fascism was based on the ''fasces'', an axe that is surrounded and bound to a bundle of sticks and was carried by officials (''lictors'') in political and military demonstrations. This was a symbol of power and authority that Mussolini repurposed for fascism.

The origins of fascism as a counter-revolutionary movement, however, can be traced as far as the [[French Republic|French]] far-right [[French Action]],<ref group="lower-alpha">French: ''Action Française''</ref> which was an openly anti-[[Marxism|Marxist]] political organization established in 1899 proposing an "integral nation" for French society through [[class collaboration]].<ref>{{Citation|author=Ernst Nolte|year=1966|title=Three faces of fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism|chapter=|page=|pdf=|city=New York|publisher=New American Library|isbn=9780451008619|doi=|lg=http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=082DBA3CA0FEE611DCDB8D2CC1DF350C|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche: Die Action française, Der italienische Faschismus, Der Nationalsozialismus|trans-lang=German}}</ref>

In ''Discourse on colonialism'', [[Aimé Césaire]] exposed the old colonialist mindsets that would later influence fascism and survive after it. This prompted him to write in that same essay that fascism is colonialism applied to the coloniser.<ref>{{Citation|author=Aimé Césaire|year=1950|title=Discourse on colonialism|chapter=|page=36|quote=People are surprised, they become indignant. They say: "How strange! But never mind – it's Nazism, it will pass!" And they wait, and they hope; and they hide the truth from themselves, that it is barbarism, the supreme barbarism, the crowning barbarism that sums up all the daily barbarisms; that it is Nazism, yes, but that before they were its victims, they were its accomplices; that they tolerated that Nazism before it was inflicted on them, that they absolved it, shut their eyes to it, legitimized it, because, until then, it had been applied only to non-European peoples; that they have cultivated that Nazism, that they are responsible for it, and that before engulfing the whole edifice of Western, Christian civilization in its reddened waters, it oozes, seeps, and trickles from every crack.|pdf=https://libcom.org/files/zz_aime_cesaire_robin_d.g._kelley_discourse_on_colbook4me.org_.pdf|city=France|publisher=Réclame|isbn=1583670254|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=Discours sur le colonialisme|trans-lang=|section=}}</ref> A similar observation was made by [[Frantz Fanon]], who wrote: "what is fascism if not colonialism when rooted in a traditionally colonialist country?"<ref>{{Citation|author=Frantz Fanon|year=1961|title=Wretched of the earth|chapter=|section=|page=90|quote=|pdf=|city=|publisher=Grove Press|isbn=9780802150837|doi=|lg=http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=D2A7D155578D59565375286BA995A79D|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref>

World War I of 1914-18 weakened world capitalism. The general crisis of capitalism manifested itself in the undermining of the political and economic foundations of the bourgeoisie rule, in the growth of the [[Revolution|revolutionary struggle]] of the workers, in the strengthening of the [[national liberation]] movement of the oppressed peoples, in the formation of the world's first workers' state, the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|Soviet state]], as a result of a breakthrough of the imperialist front. With the deepening of the general crisis of capitalism, especially in those countries where as a result of the revolutionary uprisings of the proletariat a direct threat to the rule of monopoly capital was created, the ruling classes took the path of winding down or completely destroying [[parliamentarianism]] and [[bourgeois democracy]].

As a radical manifestation of complete rejection on the part of monopolistic bourgeoisie of all democracy stood Fascism. In the conditions of revolutionary upsurge that swept European states after the First World War in 1914-18, the monopolistic bourgeoisie of Italy and some other countries passed to the most reactionary methods of [[management]], to fascist [[dictatorship]]. This transition was intended to ensure the protection and preservation of capitalism by all possible means and was accompanied by [[Demagogy|social demagogy]] and false fascist teachings designed to distract the masses from the struggle against capitalism and to turn them into an obedient tool of imperialist policy. The growth of fascist tendencies occurred unevenly in different capitalist countries and was closely related to the specific balance of power between the camp of democracy and the camp of reaction in each of the capitalist countries. The temporary victory of Fascism in some countries was the result of a political and organizational split of the labor movement as a result of a policy of class collaboration carried out by reformist elements and the refusal of social-democratic leaders to unite with the Communists in the struggle against Fascism. The position of right-wing socialist leaders who repeatedly rejected unity of action proposals of the Communist Party made it easier to establish a fascist dictatorship. At the same time, the communist parties that selflessly opposed Fascism were not free from some mistakes in their struggle to create a broad anti-fascist front.

The fascist movement became especially widespread in Italy and later in Germany, where agents of financial capital managed to use the disappointment of petty bourgeois masses with the outcome of World War I in the interests of reaction. In 1919, during the sharp rise of the revolutionary movement in Italy, the fighting groups (Fasci di Combattimento) of former front-line soldiers and declassified elements were created to fight against the revolutionary workers; they became the core of the Fascist Party financed by the Italian bourgeois top brass. Italian Fascists subjugated to their influence a considerable part of the middle classes dissatisfied with the results of World War I and a part of the workers who could not find a proper revolutionary way out of the postwar political and economic crisis that embraced Italy with particular force. In October 1922 the Fascists seized power and established their dictatorship headed by B. Mussolini (see Italy, Historical Sketch) with the King's consent and at the request of major capitalists seeking to suppress the revolutionary movement. Fascist organizations in Germany were formed in the 1920s. In 1919, the National Socialist German Workers' Party was founded and financed by German monopolies. From the very beginning the German Workers' Party made a skillful use of the hatred of the broad masses of the German people for the grave Versailles Peace of Peace imposed on Germany by the victorious powers in 1919 in the interests of reaction. German Fascism intensively propagandized the most aggressive chauvinism, the racial theory inciting hatred to other peoples, especially to the Slavs and the Jews. The purpose of this propaganda was to blur the class contradictions within the country and to "ideologically" prepare revenge for the defeat of German imperialism in the war of 1914-18. At the same time, the program developed by Nazis headed by Hitler demagogically demanded to fight usurers and speculators, participation of workers and employees in profits, etc. The Nazis, like fascists in other countries, covered up the real goals of their policy with "anti-capitalist" slogans designed to disorient faltering elements and to keep workers from revolutionary actions. Fascism, especially the Italian, used his "anti-capitalist" statements to propagate the ideas of the corporate state (see) and the struggle against the doctrine of the class struggle. The attempt to make a fascist conversion in Germany undertaken by the Nazis in 1923 failed. During the economic crisis between 1929 and 1933, despite the significant growth of the Communist Party of Germany's influence, the Hitlers succeeded in drawing away a significant part of the petty bourgeoisie and backward workers. In January 1933, in accordance with the interests of the German magnates of finance capital Hitlerites seized power in Germany. The German state apparatus was quickly fascinated; bourgeois and democratic freedoms were liquidated. A regime of political terror was established. The Hitlerites brutally suppressed the labor movement, prohibited the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and disbanded all other labor organizations, including trade unions. The Fascists dissolved the petty bourgeoisie and a significant part of the workers with the racist ideology. In order to maintain the domination of financial capital they created a system of various punitive bodies - Gestapo, storm troopers, SS, etc.

Fascist dictatorship took different forms in different countries, depending on historical, social and economic conditions, on the national characteristics and the international situation of a given country. Some specific features were inherent in military-fascist dictatorship that existed in Spain headed by Primo de Rivera in 1923-30, fascist dictatorship in Poland in 1926-39, military-fascist regime in Japan during the World War II, fascist regimes in some other countries. The most reactionary elements of finance capital supported fascist groups in France, England, USA and other countries. Everywhere, regardless of this or that specificity, Fascism was an expression of the worst reaction.

The establishment of the fascist order was accompanied by rampant terror, propaganda of misanthropy, persecution not only of adherents of Marxism, but also of supporters of progressive bourgeois social currents and groups. Representing the interests of the most aggressive elements of financial capital, the fascists, contrary to their false promises, pursued a policy of strengthening the omnipotence of large monopolies. At the same time, Fascism tried to instill in the masses the idea that the establishment of fascist orders leads to the replacement of the system of exploitation by "unity of the nation", "national cooperation". Fascism considered the entire process of human development from the perspective of the struggle of nations and races. By propagandizing the cult of power, Fascism propagated the false idea that the natural condition of the mankind that supposedly consists of the strongest, highest, and the weakest, lowest races, is war. To justify his policies, Fascism widely used geopolitics to justify the fascist invaders' claims to conquer foreign lands under the guise of fighting for "vital space".

==== Nietzsche ====
Historian and [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] philosopher [[Domenico Losurdo]] pointed in his work ''Nietzsche, the aristocratic rebel'' that [[Nietzsche]], who was an aristocrat, can be associated with a reactionary trend against the rise of the [[Paris commune]] in 1871.<ref>{{Citation|author=Domenico Losurdo|year=2002|title=Nietzsche, the aristocratic rebel|chapter=|section=|page=26|quote=[In The Birth of Tragedy,] Nietzsche’s preoccupation, or rather his anguish, about a danger not remote or hypothetical, but real and impending, is plainly evident. The reference to the Paris Commune is transparent, an event that a great part of the culture of that time experienced as the threatening announcement of a possible imminent end of culture.|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=9789004270954|doi=|lg=http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=1BA09395E9E0D69AB9797AC5DEB89851|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> Nietzsche's views were consistently anti-[[Liberalism|liberal]], anti-[[Socialism|socialist]], antidemocratic and even promoted racial hygiene, a tendency which would later inspire fascist movements.<ref>{{Citation|author=Domenico Losurdo|doi=|quote=Even a scholar that moves cautiously on ground alien to him, that of philosophical historiography, and clearly wants to avoid a critical confrontation with the hermeneutics of innocence is forced to acknowledge an essential point regarding Nietzsche interpretations: ‘Much in his work can be interpreted in terms of racial hygiene.’ Other authors are even clearer: with his insistence on the ‘degeneration’ and ‘physiological decline of European humanity’, the philosopher must be placed ‘in the context of the direct preparation of eugenics’. Indeed, in this context, he sadly occupies a privileged position: he represents the ‘turning point’ for the transition from the ‘idea of selection’ to ‘anti-degenerative activism’. The reconstruction of the history behind Hitler’s eugenic and genocidal practices cannot, in this view, ignore Nietzsche, who expressly and peremptorily demanded the ‘suppression of the wretched, the deformed, the degenerate.’|trans-lang=|trans-title=|pdf=|mia=|lg=http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=1BA09395E9E0D69AB9797AC5DEB89851|publisher=|year=2002|city=|isbn=9789004270954|chapter-url=|title-url=|chapter=|page=731|title=Nietzsche, the aristocratic rebel|section=}}</ref>

==== Sorel ====
Georges Sorel (1847–1922) was a French syndicalist that contributed and inspired the rise of [[National Syndicalism]] in Italy and Spain. His most famous works centred around the idea of [[myth]]; which he highlights as "forming the centre of man’s cosmology and world view in all ages".<ref>{{News citation|journalist=Rodrigo Sobota|date=2020-10-15|title=Georges Sorel and the Triumphant Return of the Myth|url=https://www.geopolitica.ru/en/article/georges-sorel-and-triumphant-return-myth}}</ref> In 1909, Sorel began to adopt the idea of Integral Nationalism, publishing an article praising the far-right group [[French Action]] in ''Divenire sociale''—the leading journal for Italian Syndicalists at the time. It received immense praise by [[French Action]]; being reprinted under the name "Antiparliamentary Socialists”, and in 1910 he joined the group. During this time, he developed further reactionary ideals, leading him to support Catholic Patriotism and further embedding himself in fascist ideology.<ref>{{Citation|author=Zeev Sternhell|year=1994|title=THE BIRTH OF FASCIST IDEOLOGY|chapter=1–3|pdf=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzaceavi2ziwuqzadtp7fjcw24uvkoix4wzybsibskpjmfbksjcxwblyg?filename=Zeev%20Sternhell%2C%20Mario%20Sznajder%2C%20Maia%20Asheri%20-%20The%20Birth%20of%20Fascist%20Ideology_%20From%20Cultural%20Rebellion%20to%20Political%20Revolution-Princeton%20University%20Press%20%281994%29.pdf|isbn=0-691-03289-0|lg=http://library.lol/main/10886BD4A08A7180CDA3D8B3BED5ADD1}}</ref> Mussolini looked up highly to Sorel and claimed he was his "foremost teacher".<ref>{{News citation|journalist=James H. Meisel|date=1950-03-01|title=A Premature Fascist? ― Sorel and Mussolini|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/106591295000300102?journalCode=prqa&}}</ref>

===Italian fascism===
The Italian fascist government of 1922 was the first known historical example of large-scale privatizations of state-owned enterprises.<ref>{{Citation|author=Germà Bel|year=2011|title=The first privatization: Selling SOEs and privatizing public monopolies in Fascist Italy (1922-1925)|chapter=|page=|quote=Italy’s first Fascist government applied a large-scale privatization policy between 1922 and 1925. [...] These interventions represent one of the earliest and most decisive privatization episodes in the Western world.|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=|doi=10.1093/cje/beq051|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref>

===German fascism===
[[German fascism]] was most known for its [[Genocide|genocidal]], [[Expansionism|expansionist]], [[Imperialism|imperialist]] and [[Colonialism|colonialist]] rule under the [[National-socialist German Workers' Party|Nazi Party]] from 1933 to 1945, culminating in the deaths of at least 30 million people, including 26.6 million Soviet lives.<ref>{{Citation|author=Lieutenant Colonel S.B. Eremenko|year=|title=On the issue of losses of the opposing sides at the Soviet-German front during the Great Patriotic War|chapter=|page=|quote=Today we can state with a certain degree of probability that losses of the Soviet Union amounted to 26.6 million people, including losses of the Armed Forces amounted to 8,668,400 servicemen. The total statistical figure includes not only those killed in action and those who died from wounds and illnesses, but also civilians killed during bombing, artillery shelling and punitive actions, prisoners of war and underground fighters shot and tortured in camps, and those sent away for forced labor in Germany.|pdf=|city=|publisher=Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation|isbn=|doi=|lg=|mia=|title-url=https://encyclopedia.mil.ru/encyclopedia/history/more.htm?id=11359251@cmsArticle|chapter-url=|trans-title=К вопросу о потерях противоборствующих сторон на советско-германском фронте в годы Великой Отечественной войны: правда и вымысел|trans-lang=Russian}}</ref> While the word "Nazi" is short for "National socialist", they were capitalists, their name being nothing more than a ploy to gain working-class support. Not only did the German fascists allow the virulent [[exploitation]] of the working people and concentration of capital,<ref>{{Citation|author=Sidney Merlin|year=1943|title=Trends in German economic control since 1933|chapter=|page=207|quote=The party, moreover, facilitates the accumulation of private fortunes and industrial empires by its foremost members and collaborators through "privatization" and other measures, thereby intensifying centralization of economic affairs and government in an increasingly narrow group that may for all practical purposes be termed the national socialist elite.|pdf=|city=|publisher=The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 57|isbn=|doi=10.2307/1882751|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> they adopted a [[Settler colonialism|settler-colonial]] model coupled with [[exploitation colonialism]] and mass terror applied to the [[Europe|European continent]].<ref>{{Citation|author=Thomas Kühne|year=2013|title=Colonialism and the Holocaust: continuities, causations, and complexities|chapter=German colonialism and German peculiarities|page=343|quote=Hitler's writings and speeches, public and private, left no doubt that Lebensraum, or living space, was to be gained on the continent rather than overseas. The German equivalent of British India or French Algeria was not Cameroon, Togo or German Southwest Africa but central and east Europe, as some scholars have reminded the advocates of the salt water colonial paradigm.|pdf=|city=|publisher=Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 15|isbn=|doi=10.1080/14623528.2013.821229|lg=|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref> The ideological justification for colonization of European peoples by Nazis was promoted as ''[[Lebensraum]]'',<ref group="lower-alpha">English: ''Living space''</ref> and was directly influenced by [[United States of America|Statesian]] genocide of Native peoples through ''[[Manifest Destiny]]''.<ref>{{Citation|author=Robert J. Miller|year=2020|title=Nazi Germany's race laws, the United States, and American Indians|chapter=|page=14|quote=Many of the Lebensraum justifications that Hitler and Nazis used directly echoed the justifications given for American Manifest Destiny. (...) National Socialists took on the mantle of noble colonizers who were fighting against ignoble savages. Not surprisingly, scholars recognize that these Nazi ideas on Lebensraum were largely modeled on late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century understandings of American expansion.|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=|doi=|lg=http://librarian.libgen.gs/ads.php?md5=77a60b95047d1913f026368bbf9a3225&downloadname=10.2139/ssrn.3541009|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref>

The Nazi Party was beaten into dissolution by the [[Soviet Union]] after the Battle of Berlin in May 1945.
===Japanese fascism===
Japanese fascism, also known as Shōwa Statism, was based on a number of [[imperialist]] and [[Ultranationalism|ultranationalist]] political ideas from various Japanese thinkers. Japanese fascism manifested itself in extreme militarism, monarchism, and expansionism in [[Asia]].

=== Portuguese fascism ===
From 1933 to 1974, [[Portugal]] was ruled by the ''Estado Novo'' ("New State"), headed by [[António de Oliveira Salazar]]. Under Salazar's dictatorship, the Portuguese [[working class]] was subjugated to [[reactionary]] [[Christianity|christian]] doctrine, as well as a "[[Third Positionism|Corporatist]]" economy. The Salazarist regime was also militantly [[imperialist]], repressing calls for independence and self-determination in [[Republic of Angola|Angola]] and [[Republic of Mozambique|Mozambique]]. The Estado Novo would finally fall in 1974, after a military coup. By the end of the 1970s, Portugal had returned to being a bourgeois democracy.<ref>{{Citation|author=Howard J. Wiarda|year=1977|title=Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience|title-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHFaAAAAIAAJ|publisher=University of Massachusetts Press|isbn=9780870232213|trans-lang=English}}</ref>

Portugal, at the time a Fascist dictatorship, was one of the founding members of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]].

===Spanish fascism ===
Following the victory of the [[United Front]] in 1936, a fascist revolt led by General Franco and assisted by invading Germany and Italy, tacitly backed by the rest of the allies, broke out. A civil war lasting three years followed, culminating in the crushing of Republican forces. The regime went on to last three more decades, and it is said that the current "reformed" Spanish state is a continuation of the same regime. Notably, Franco reintroduced the king of Spain in 1956 (whose parent was deposed in 1931), and to this day Spain remains a monarchy

=== Historical Opposition ===
From the very first steps, Fascism came up against the opposition of all forces of democracy and above all the working class and its vanguard - the communist parties. As early as the First Congress of the Communist International (1919) said in its manifesto "To the proletarians of the whole world" that the financial oligarchy crushed parliamentary democracy. The 4th Congress of the Communist International (1922) recognized one of the most important tasks of the communist parties to organize resistance to Fascism on the basis of using the tactics of a united front. Where the Communists succeeded in establishing a united front, Fascism was defeated. For example, it happened in France where the fascist coup attempt in February 1934 failed as the result of the repulse of the working class supported by the broad masses. Taking into account the experience of the international working movement, the VII Congress of the Communist International (1935) raised the issue of establishing a broad anti-fascist popular front against Fascism and war on the basis of a single working front. It stressed the need to closely link the struggle against the danger of war with the struggle against Fascism Noting that the bourgeoisie, unable to find a solution to the international situation on the basis of a peaceful foreign policy, resorted to Fascism in order to prepare for war. The most important task of the Fascism foreign policy was to prepare and wage a war to redivide the world, to subjugate and enslave other nations, and to destroy the USSR. The bloc of major fascist countries - Germany, Italy and Japan - was formed on the basis of that policy. Fascism acted as a striking force of the international counterrevolution, initiator and inspirer of the "crusade" against the USSR. With the help of the United Kingdom and British monopolies, fascist states created powerful armed forces and pursued an aggressive foreign policy. In foreign policy, Fascism showed unparalleled treachery and violation of international law. An anti-fascist movement was developed in the 1930s against Fascism and the threat of World War II, in defense of democracy, national sovereignty, and world peace.

The Communist parties emerged as the inspirational and organizing force. A broad anti-fascist popular front was formed in Spain, France, in China the Communist Party led the national front against the Japanese imperialists, a popular front was formed in Poland and a number of other countries. However, using the connivance of the ruling circles of Britain, France and the United States, the fascist Italy in 1935-36 invaded Ethiopia. As a result of the Italian-German armed intervention begun in 1936, the Francoist regime in Spain was established in 1939; in 1931 imperial Japan seized North-East China (Manchuria). China (Manchuria) and in 1937 began a war of enslavement against China; in 1938 Hitler's Germany conquered Austria, in 1938-39 - Czechoslovakia; in 1939 fascist Italy conquered Albania. In September 1939 Hitler Germany invaded Poland, which started World War II 1939-45. The aim of the fascist states was to gain world domination, to enslave all the peoples of the world, to destroy freedom and democracy all over the world, to establish the fascist regime everywhere, to exterminate some peoples physically and to enslave other peoples. On June 22, 1941 Germany treacherously attacked the Soviet Union.

Violating international rules of warfare, the fascists resorted to unheard of atrocities, which were particularly rampant in the occupied territories of Poland, Yugoslavia and the USSR. The fascists tried to establish in Europe and Asia a so-called "new order" the essence of which in the political field was the total elimination of democratic rights of peoples and the establishment of a bloody regime of fascist terror and arbitrariness; in the economic field the "new order" consisted in robbery and ruin of the occupied countries; in the national field the "new order" represented the cruelest enslavement and oppression of peoples in Europe and Asia and turning them into vassals of the fascist powers. The fascists exported prisoners of war and peaceful populations of the conquered countries for forced labor. Fascism was a great disaster not only for the peoples of the countries occupied by fascist powers, but also for the peoples of those countries where there was a fascist dictatorship, the people of these countries were opposed to all the freedom-loving people and suffered huge losses at the expense of their fascist rulers.

The freedom-loving peoples of all countries rose up to fight against the Fascism At the forefront of the war of liberation of the freedom-loving peoples against the Fascism The Soviet people, who, in response to the attack of Hitler's Germany on the USSR began the Great Patriotic War. The USSR undertook the main burden of fighting against fascist aggressors and their allies and satellites and changed the whole course of the World War II. In the countries occupied by the Nazis, as well as those under the power of their allies and satellites, a strong resistance movement was developed. In 1945 the fascist coalition was defeated by the anti-fascist coalition forces headed by the USSR, Great Britain and the USA. The defeat of FR in the World War II created the necessary preconditions for the rebirth of democracy in the countries previously enslaved by fascists and led to the establishment of the people's democracy system in a number of countries. In August 1945 the International Military Tribunal was set up and at the trial in Nuremberg (November 20, 1945 - October 1, 1946) it condemned the Nazi crimes and sentenced the main German war criminals to death. The Nuremberg Trials and the trials of major war criminals in Romania, Finland, Hungary, Japan and other countries contributed to the struggle to eradicate Fascism In the countries of Eastern, Central and South-Eastern Europe that embraced the socialist path of development, fascist organizations were completely destroyed and the social and economic conditions that could give rise to Fascism

=== Neo-fascist movements ===
''See main article: [[Neo-fascism]]''

====2019 coup in Bolivia ====
President [[Evo Morales]] of Bolivia was reelected to this office in October 2019 with 47,08% of total votes. Soon after, opposing fascists called the results into question, helped by fraudulent reports from the [[Organisation of American States]] (OAS), which led to their paramilitary wing causing violence in the streets. After three weeks, Morales agreed to step down and left the country.

Later, accusations of electoral fraud were completely debunked by the same journals that initially reported on them, trusting the OAS.

The new government, led by Jeanine Añez, established a military junta in the country so as to dismantle popular support for MAS (Morales' party). They pushed elections back three times, eventually having them take place in November 2020, a full year after the coup. Their efforts failed, as MAS won the presidential election in 2020 with 55% of all votes (under candidate Luis Arce).

Since his election, Arce's government has announced that they would effectively purge the military's leadership, as their treason was pivotal in letting the coup succeed.

== The Present State of Fascism ==
As a result of World War II, Fascism was defeated, but the struggle against Fascism and the fascist menace is far from over. The most reactionary elements in the capitalist countries continue to strive for the dismantling of democratic institutions and the establishment of fascist orders and are focused on a new world war. Fascist tendencies are visible and must be detected early in political life: the banning of communists and other bourgeois-democratic groups, sometimes in favor of a controlled opposition, the propaganda of war, racism, the general struggle against progressive and advanced currents. Fascism today is willing to make many compromises to establish a dictatorship, so the slogan of open terrorist dictatorship has lost its relevance. In a number of capitalist countries, neo-fascist organizations have resumed their open activity. However, with a mass movement of supporters of peace, a widespread strengthening of democracy, and a growing unity of the working class, forces seeking to establish a fascist order will meet growing opposition from all freedom-loving and progressive humanity.

==Erroneous Analyses of Fascism==

=== The Left Theory of Fascism ===
The left wing analysis of fascism largely evolved from the known work of [[Jack London]], ''The Iron Heel.'' Tough this was a book written before the world was introduced to fascism proper, it outlines much the perceived likeness of fascism. The analysis sees fascism as a tool and a trick by the bourgeoisie. Proponents of this analysis would see fascism as an intrinsic part of bourgeois society and thereby capitalist hegemony.

This analysis is archaic in modern Marxist perceptions of fascism, as it is not critical and cannot meaningfully differentiate between reactionary liberal capitalism and fascism. Examples may include the [[Amadeo Bordiga|Amadeo Bordiga's]] statement at the fifth congress of the communist international in 1924, in which he said:<blockquote>Fascism, fundamentally, merely repeats the old game of the bourgeoise left parties, i.e. it appeals to the proletariat for civil peace. It attempts to achieve this aim by forming trade unions of industrial and agricultural workers, which it then leads into practical collaboration with the employers' organisations.<ref>{{Citation|author=Duncan Hallas|year=1985|title=The Comintern|title-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/hallas/works/1985/comintern/}}</ref></blockquote>

=== The Right Theory of Fascism ===
Whilst the left theory of fascism sees it as an elite movement, a hammer with which the bourgeois retaliates upon the organised working class. The right theory instead proposes fascism as a mass movement, and not indeed a force propagated or controlled by the ruling class. It sees fascism as separate from capitalist institutions, and as a revolutionary movement hostile to them.

However this, aswell, undermines and misunderstands the nature of fascism. How come the capitalist class intergrated and accepted fascism? Why did they not fight fascism with tooth and nail if it was indeed hostile towards their surpremacy?
=== Fascism of the Petty Bourgeoisie ===
Concocted by one [[Leon Trotsky]], combines both as to explain the phenomenon, according to the dialectical theory, fascism is both apart of capitalist society, a tool to the ruling class. But also a mass movement.

As capitalism declines and falls into crisis reactionary movements find ground at the same time as the workers organise through desperation as revolutionary conditions set place.

The class of which was most contributing to the membership of fascist parties was the petit-bourgeoisie, a class which suffered hardship as well during economic crisis, however did not accurately place their anger systemically but was characterized by its rabid racism, and anti-working class. It was indeed a mass movement, a movement of the petit-bourgeoise. But it was not anti capitalist. How can this be? The analysis goes that fascism inherently is contradictory, it is yet a mass movement cultivated by capitalisms decline, but it is not anti capitalist. For the petit bourgeoise do not want to destroy the ruling class, they want to become the ruling class. It is a reactionary movement, of which inevitably only benefits the current ruling class, made from a movement of non bourgeois people. This means that there is a contradiction between fascism as an ideology and the movement which supports it. To stave off this contradiction fascism must always divert and distract itself from its own contradictions. Then using minorities, ethnicities, racism, anything really. To fill the gaps of its own ideological void. However it cannot continue, as it is an antagonistic contradiction, it will always break itself apart. Which is what we have seen historically.

This theory exaggerates the role of the petty bourgeoisie in fascism, completely neglects the function of financial capital, and downplays the struggle of the working people against fascism, which may well establish world hegemony if it is not resisted on all fronts.

== See also ==

* [[Neoliberalism]]
* [[German Reich (1933–1945)|Greater German Reich]]
* [[Far-right politics]]
* [[Genocide]]

==References==
<references />

===Notes===
<references group="lower-alpha" />
[[Category:Political ideology]]
[[Category:Fascism]]
[[Category:Extremism]]
[[Category:Right-wing ideologies]]
[[Category:Anti-communism]]

Topic:X6z47nbyv8zhgy77

2022-11-15T16:43:52Z

GheorgheCraciun (talk | contribs) commented on "Brazil" (Good afternoon comrade! I greatly expanded the page about Brazil. Since I noticed that you are Brazilian, could you take a look and make...)

Federative Republic of Brazil

2022-11-15T16:42:49Z

GheorgheCraciun:

{{Infobox country
| name = Federative Republic of Brazil
| native_name = República Federativa do Brasil
| image_flag = File:Flag of Brazil.svg
| image_coat = File:Coat of arms of Brazil.svg
| image_map = Brazil (ortographic projection).svg
| map_width = 220px
| capital = Brasília
| largest_city = São Paulo
| government_type = [[Federation|Federal]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[Bourgeois state|bourgeois state]]
| established_event1 = Proclamation of the Empire of Brazil
| established_date1 = 1822 September 7th
| established_event2 = Proclamation of the Republic of Brazil
| established_date2 = 1889 November 15th
| established_event3 = US-backed right-wing military dictatorship
| established_date3 = 1964 April 1st
| established_event4 = Redemocratization
| established_date4 = 1985 March 15th
| population_estimate = 211,755,692<ref>Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (2020). [https://www.in.gov.br/web/dou/-/portaria-n-pr-254-de-25-de-agosto-de-2020-274382852 Estimates published in official government documents].</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2020
| labour_force = 86.621 million<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy">CIA World Factbook (2020). ''[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/#economy Brazil – The world factbook (economy)]''</ref>
| labour_force_participation = 56.8%<ref>Trading economics (2021). ''[https://tradingeconomics.com/brazil/labor-force-participation-rate Brazil labor force participation rate]'' </ref>
| labour_occupation = agriculture: 9.4% industry: 32.1% services: 58.5%<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| unemployment = 14.7%<ref>Trading economics (2021). ''[https://tradingeconomics.com/brazil/unemployment-rate Brazil unemployment rate]'' </ref>
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 = Jair Bolsonaro
| leader_title2 = President of the Chamber of Deputies
| leader_name2 = Arthur Lira
| leader_title3 = President of the Federal Senate
| leader_name3 = Rodrigo Pacheco
| leader_title4 = President of the Supreme Federal Court
| leader_name4 = Luiz Fux
| GDP_nominal_year = 2019
| GDP_nominal = US$1.84 trillion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=BR GDP (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = US$8,717.18<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=BR GDP per capita (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| export_year = 2019
| export = US$263 billion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.CD?locations=BR Exports of goods and services (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| export_commodities = soybeans, crude petroleum, iron, corn, wood pulp products<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| export_partners = [[People's Republic of China|China]] (28%), [[United States of America|United States]] (13%)<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| import_year = 2019
| import = US$269 billion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.IMP.GNFS.CD?locations=BR Imports of goods and services (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| import_commodities = refined petroleum, vehicle parts, crude petroleum, integrated circuits, pesticides<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| import_partners = [[People's Republic of China|China]] (21%), [[United States of America|United States]] (18%), [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]] (6%)
| external_debt = US$684.6 billion
| external_debt_rank = 20th
| Gini = 53.9%
| Gini_year = 2018
| Gini_rank = 9th
| HDI = 0.765
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_rank = 84th
| currency = Brazilian real
| currency_code = BRL
}}
'''Brazil''', officially the '''Federative Republic of Brazil''', is a country in [[Latin America]]. It is the most populous country in its continent. It is a [[Dependency|dependent]] [[Capitalism|capitalist]] country.<ref>{{Citation|author=Ruy Mauro Marini|year=1973|title=Dialética da dependência|mia=https://www.marxists.org/portugues/marini/1973/mes/dialetica.htm}}</ref>

Since 2019, the country has been under the government of [[Jair Bolsonaro]], who promoted and enacted policies of [[privatization]] of [[state-owned enterprises]] led by the [[Chicago Boys]] member Paulo Guedes. It is a de facto military, [[Fascism|fascist]] government, composed of 6.1 thousand military personnel in public offices,<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Correio Braziliense|title=Segundo TCU, 6,1 mil militares ocupam cargos no governo|date=2020-07-17|url=https://www.correiobraziliense.com.br/app/noticia/economia/2020/07/17/internas_economia,873137/segundo-tcu-6-1-mil-militares-ocupam-cargos-no-governo.shtml|retrieved=2022-07-16}}</ref> more than 2.3 thousand irregularly.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Carta Capital|title=CGU aponta pagamentos e ocupações irregulares de 2,3 mil militares|date=2022-07-12|url=https://www.cartacapital.com.br/politica/cgu-aponta-pagamentos-e-ocupacoes-irregulares-de-23-mil-militares/|retrieved=2022-07-16}}</ref> Attaching particular importance to strengthening its position in Latin America, the Brazilian government seeks to act as a leader of countries on the American continent.

== History ==

=== Pre-colonization (~60,000 BCE – 1500) ===
The appearance of man on the territory of Brazil refers to the Neolithic Age. Before the beginning of the 16th century, the territory of Brazil was inhabited by Indian tribes: Tupi Guarani, Tupinambas, Botokuds, Tamoyos, Koroados, etc. All of them were at the stage of tribal organization and lived in small communities. All of them were at the stage of tribal organization and lived in small communities. The tribal aristocracy was just beginning to form, and most of the tribes were nomadic. The Tupi-Guaranis led a settled way of life. In their communities priests and chiefs were distinguished, who had some personal property, including domestic slaves.

=== Colonization period (1500–1822) ===
In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared the land he discovered to be the possession of Portugal. The Portuguese took the valuable mahogany pau-brasil (pau-brasil, hence the name of the country) from Brazil In the 30s of the 16th century the territory of Brazil coast was divided into 13 capitals which lands the donatarii - natives of the Portuguese feudal nobility - received as beneficiaries from the king. In 1549 a governorship general was established in Brazil with its capital in Salvador (Bahia). In the same year the Jesuits appeared in the colony. They established Indian settlements (missions), which were a branch of the extensive feudal organization of the Jesuit order with elements of slavery and patriarchal clan relations. The conquest of the territory of Brazil took place in the context of an intense struggle of Portugal with its rivals, mainly France and Holland. In 1630 the Dutch managed to capture the territory of the Pernambuco captaincy, but in 1654 they were expelled from the territory of Brazil On the colonized territory, from the 16th century, big landowners' estates (sesmaria) with the use of feudal and slave forms of exploitation of Indians and blacks started to form (the first parties of blacks were brought to Brazil in the 30-ies of the 16th century).

Production of goods imported from the metropolis (wheat, vegetable oil, wine, etc.) was forbidden in the colony. Only cotton, rice, corn were cultivated, but sugar cane was the main crop. Sugar cane plantations required large amount of labor. From the late 17th century the importation of slaves from Africa intensified, especially in connection with the discovery of gold and diamonds. The brutal exploitation of slaves on the plantations led to a large mortality rate. Indians and blacks put up stubborn resistance to their oppressors. In 1630 escaped slaves created in one of the remote regions of the Pernambuco state - the Republic of Palmaris that existed till 1697. In the 2nd half of the 17th century Portugal continued the centralization of the colonial government and the prohibitive trade policy. The local government had limited power, trade with the colony was given to a small number of companies, the main role among which played the Portuguese General Company of the Brazilian Trade, founded in 1649. From 1658 it raised sharply the taxes collected in the colony, in 1665 it introduced a salt monopoly. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the first speeches of colonists-Brazilians against the Portuguese authorities took place (1684, 1720). To contain the growth of discontent, the Portuguese government allowed the foundation of manufactories and expelled the Jesuits (1759). However at the end of the 18th century Portugal forbade the foundation of manufactures, the building of ships, and printing.

Gold and diamond mining became very important during this period, turning Brazil into the richest colony in Portugal. The so-called gold rush stimulated the foundation of new cities and the building of roads. Rio de Janeiro became the main point linking Brazil with the outside world. In 1763, the capital was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The contradictions between Banyan and the metropolis aggravated at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, which put all possible obstacles in the way of its economic, political, and cultural development. In 1789, a conspiracy led by Tiradentis was uncovered in the province of Minas Gerais. The conspirators intended to establish an independent republic and the gradual abolition of slavery. In 1797 rebellions against Portugal broke out in the province of Bahia, in which soldiers and the urban poor, including mulattoes and Negroes, participated. In 1807 in connection with the occupation of Portugal by Napoleon's troops, the Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro. The stay of the court had as a consequence a number of innovations. The captaincies came to be called provinces. Brazilian ports were opened to trade with other countries. Newspapers, magazines, a Brazilian bank, a national library and museum were founded. The royal court depended entirely on British patronage. By the treaty of 1810 Great Britain obtained great advantages in trade with Brazil The stay in Brazil of the royal court, the Portuguese army, English advisers and the expenses connected with it increased the tax oppression and caused a further growth of discontent among the working masses of Brazil with Portuguese domination. In 1815 Brazil received the status of a kingdom, becoming part of the "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarve". Formally, Brazil ceased to be a colony, but Portuguese authorities were still in charge in Brazil The movement against the rule of the colonizers did not weaken. In 1817, a rebellion broke out in the province of Pernambuco which then spread to Ceará, Paraíba, Maranhão and Alagoas. The rebels proclaimed the province of Pernambuco a republic, formed a provisional government, and appealed to all the people of Brazil to end Portuguese rule and establish an independent Brazilian republic; the revolutionary government lasted 72 days.

The bourgeois revolution of 1820 in Portugal led to a new upsurge in the movement for the independence of Brazil King João VI was forced to leave Brazil (1821), leaving his son Pedro I. as regent of Brazil The liberation movement under the slogan "Freedom or Death!" spread throughout Brazil On September 7, 1822, Pedro I. declared Brazil an independent empire. The day became a national holiday.

=== Empire era (1822–1889) ===
In March 1824 the first constitution of the country came into force, according to which Brazil was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Portugal was forced to recognize the independence of Brazil (1825). The three-hundred-year colonial period ended, but the monarchy in Brazil survived. Under Emperors Pedro I of Brazil (1822-31) and his son Pedro II (1831-89) the country became economically dependent on Great Britain. In the peculiar combination of slave-holding, feudal and nascent capitalist production relations, slave-holding relations prevailed in the first half of the 19th century, especially in the main branches of Brazil economy: coffee and sugar production and in the mining industry. The political development of Brazil was marked by the persistent struggle of the masses against the monarchical regime and reaction, for a federal democratic republic and the abolition of slavery. In 1824-30, there were continuous uprisings of Negro slaves in the province of Bahia. In June 1831 a popular republican uprising broke out in the province of Rio de Janeiro. In 1833-1849 a wave of armed popular uprisings broke out in most provinces demanding the establishment of a democratic republic. The largest were the "farrapos" (ragamuffins) in the province of Rio Grande do Sul (1835- 1845) and the "praieiros" (coast-dwellers) in the province of Pernambuco (1848-1849).

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, with the abolition of the slave trade, slave labour was gradually replaced by free labour. The new production relations led to a more noticeable development of industry and agriculture. The process of formation of capitalist relations was accelerated by the growth of European immigration that began in the 50s and became particularly widespread in the 80s-90s.

In 1865-70 Brazil in alliance with Argentina and Uruguay fought a war for the dismemberment of Paraguay. During the war, the abolitionist movement intensified. In 1888, the so-called Golden Law on the abolition of slavery was issued. Anti-monarchist republican movement, which developed in parallel with the abolitionist movement, was led by the Republican Party (founded in 1869). There were popular anti-monarchist demonstrations in the country. On November 15, 1889 Emperor Pedro II was overthrown and Brazil was proclaimed a federal republic. The Constituent Assembly convened in February 1891 adopted a constitution similar to the U.S. Constitution. The provinces were transformed into states. The capital, Rio de Janeiro, was made a federal district.

=== Republic era (1889–1964) ===
With the proclamation of the republic, political power in the country remained in the hands of the landlords and the big bourgeoisie, connected with foreign, mainly English, capital. The government, protecting the interests of the ruling classes, brutally cracked down on the democratic movement. In 1896-97 a peasant land movement broke out in Bahia, near Canudus. It was suppressed by the government forces, but the peasants' fight for the land continued. With the abolition of slavery the capitalist development of Brazil accelerated considerably. The rapid growth of enterprises in towns led to an increase in the number of workers. The first trade unions and workers' organizations began to appear at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. In 1892 a workers' congress was held in Rio de Janeiro, which attempted to establish a workers' party. The Socialist Center was founded in Santos that year and led the May Day demonstrations of 1895 in Santos and São Paulo. By 1896 there were several Marxist circles in the country. A socialist newspaper, Sosialista (O Socialista), began to be published in São Paulo. In 1905-07 there were workers' demonstrations and strikes in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Santos, and in 1906 a workers' congress was held in Rio de Janeiro.

Foreign capital, which had penetrated the economy of Brazil, directed it in a direction beneficial to its interests. English and American monopolies seized fertile land. Coffee, cotton, and sugar took a leading place in the economy of Brazil In 1910 Brazil became a member of the Pan American Union. From that time American capital began to penetrate strongly into the Brazil economy, becoming after the World War I, 1914-1918 the main rival of British capital. From 1917 Brazil participated in the war on the side of the Entente.

Under the influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, the workers' movement in Brazil began to rise. In mass demonstrations and rallies workers openly expressed their sympathy for the ideas of the Russian revolution. In large cities, Marxist groups (socialist and communist circles and leagues) began to be created. In March 1922 the Brazilian Communist Party (BCP) was founded. In July 1922 there was an uprising of the capital's garrison in the Copacabana Fortress. In July 1924 the garrison of São Paulo rebelled. The city's masses supported the rebels. The rebels seized the city and held it for three weeks. Under the influence of events in Sao Paulo rebellions broke out in many states of Brazil. L. C. Prestes, who led the rebellion in the south of Brazil, led with continuous fighting the rebel column to the N. of the country (October 1924-February 1927). The governments of A. Bernardis (1922-26) and V. Luis Pereira (1926-30) suppressed the uprisings.

The economic crisis of 1929-33 hit Brazil with great force. During the crisis years, 2.4 million tons of coffee were destroyed as prices for all of Brazil's main exports - coffee, cocoa, cotton, and livestock products - plummeted on the world market. The working class suffered from unemployment. The crisis revealed the extreme backwardness of the social structure and Brazil's dependence on foreign capital. On the eve of the presidential elections of 1930, two hostile political factions had formed: the Conservative Concentration, which represented the interests of the landowners who relied on English imperialism, and the Liberal Alliance, which represented the bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisized landowners connected with the US imperialists. As a result of the armed struggle for power in November 1930 the Liberal Alliance supporter, J. Vargas, won and formed an interim government. In fact, a dictatorship was established in Brazil Vargas, who, depending on the situation, changed the methods of government in the interests of the bourgeoisie and landlords. The German and Italian monopolies intensively penetrated the economy of Brazil German monopolies acquired controlling stakes in a number of large manufacturing enterprises, iron mines, and vast lands in Riachan (on the N.-E.); the "German Bank for South America" established in Brazil 300 of its branches. The economic expansion of German imperialism strengthened fascist elements in the political life of the country. The Fascist party, the Integralist Action (founded in 1933), was active in Brazil The working class and the masses offered resolute resistance to the onslaught of fascism. In March 1935 the anti-fascist forces united into the National Liberation Alliance (NLA), which put forward the task of fighting against fascism and imperialism and for the implementation of an agrarian reform. In July the government forbade the activities of the NLA. In November 1935 armed uprisings took place under the leadership of the ELA in Rio de Janeiro, Niteroi, Recife, and Natal, drowned in blood. Brazil was declared a state of siege, tens of thousands of revolutionaries were arrested, including L. C. Prestes and other Communist Party leaders. The organization of corporate unions dependent on the government was intensified. In 1936 Vargas issued decrees on minimum wages, nationalization of the transport company Lloyd Brazileiro, owned by English capital, pensions for industrial workers, and in 1938 on nationalization of oil sources and wage increases for certain categories of workers. These measures were conditioned both by the struggle of workers for their rights and interests and by the development of capitalism in Brazil As a spokesman for the bourgeoisie, Vargas understood the need to increase the role of the state for the country's economic development.

In November 1937 Vargas dissolved the congress and promulgated a constitution proclaiming Brazil "a new state." In December, all political parties were dissolved. Vargas launched a social demagogy, portraying himself as the founder of a "new state of justice.

During [[World War II]], 1939-45, the penetration of U.S. imperialism into Brazil intensified. In January 1941 an agreement was signed to send a U.S. military mission to Brazil In January 1942, Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with Germany and Italy and in August 1942 declared war on them (Brazil declared war on Japan on June 6, 1945). The defeat of the Fascist powers gave a powerful impetus to the development of the democratic movement in Brazil Under the pressure of the masses, the Vargas government had granted amnesty to political prisoners in the beginning of 1945, had allowed the political parties, including the Communist Party, to work and had established diplomatic relations with the USSR (April 2, 1945). In the same year several political parties were founded: the Social-Democratic Party, reflecting the interests of large latifundists; the National Democratic Union, uniting broad sections of the national bourgeoisie, led by the leaders of the so-called Western, anti-communist orientation, and the Brazilian Trabalist Party, representing the middle and petty bourgeoisie and a considerable number of workers.

Frightened by the growth of the democratic movement, the most reactionary circles in Brazil, closely affiliated with the United States, decided to overthrow the Vargas government. On October 29 Generals G. Monteiro and E. G. Dutra organized a military coup. Parliamentary and presidential elections were held in December, with considerable success for the Communists, who for the first time nominated their candidates in national elections. The government was headed by General E. G. Dutra (1946-51). In 1946 a new constitution was adopted, reflecting some of the democratic gains of the workers, the rights of the people to the subsoil wealth of Brazil However, already in May 1947 reaction went on the offensive. The government banned the activities of the BKP, the Union of Communist Youth (founded in 1943) and the Trade Union Confederation of Workers (founded in 1946). In October 1947 Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR, and in May 1949 the Movement of Supporters of Peace was banned in the country. The Dutra government followed the policy of militarization and the Cold War. U.S. direct investment in Brazil rose from $323 million in 1946 to $803 million in 1951. The capitulation to U.S. imperialism and the repressive regime aroused popular discontent. As a result of the unfolding nationalist movement, the Vargas government (1951-54) came to power again. Due to the poor state of the finances, Vargas received as early as 1952 a $300 million loan from the United States and opened up access to U.S. private capital investment. At the same time, in 1953 the Vargas government created the state oil company Petrobras, which established a state monopoly (with the participation of Brazilian private capital) for exploration, production, and refining of Brazilian oil, and in April 1954 it submitted to Congress a bill to create the state company Electrobras. The labor movement in Brazil was intensifying. In 1953 800 thousand workers took part in the strike struggle (in the preceding 5 years an average of 200-300 thousand people). The trade unions united over 1.3 million workers. In May 1954, under the pressure of the masses Vargas declared that the minimum wage of workers and employees was to be doubled in comparison with 1951. The reactionary circles of the latifundists, big capitalists and the military believed that Vargas's policy stimulated the development of mass popular uprisings and threatened the existing order. In August, a meeting of air force generals decided to demand Vargas's resignation as "the only means" to resolve the "national crisis." Vargas committed suicide. The military and reaction tried to establish a dictatorial regime in Brazil The people thwarted their plans with mass demonstrations. The government of J. Kubicek de Oliveira (1956-60) came to power, representing both patriotic figures and reactionary politicians connected with foreign, mainly American, capital. Often reactionaries were able to exert decisive influence on government policy. In 1957 the Kubitschek government signed an agreement with the United States on giving up Fernando de Noronha for a five-year term as a U.S. military base.

In the 1950s, Brazil had an automobile industry, increased oil production and refining, ferrous metal smelting, cement production, and power generation. From agrarian Brazil was transforming into an agrarian-industrial country with large industrial centers: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Recife, etc. The opening of the new capital (April 21, 1960) - Brasilia - signaled the economic strengthening of the Brazilian bourgeoisie. However, many important sectors of the Brazilian economy remained in the hands of foreign capital, mainly the United States. Latifundia and backward relations persisted in agriculture.

In the 1960 elections, with the support of the bourgeoisie, latifundists, the Catholic Church, some social democrats and the Brazilian Trabalist Party, J. Cuadros was elected president. The Cuadros government charted a more independent foreign policy, took steps to establish diplomatic and trade relations with the USSR and other dependant countries, and strengthened the country's financial position. This caused discontent among reactionary circles connected with American monopolies. Under their pressure, Cuadros was forced to resign in August 1961. Nationalist forces opposed to the desire of reaction to establish a dictatorship in the country, achieved the accession to the presidency of Vice-President J. Goulart. Goulart's government which came to power in September 1961 (1961-64) restored diplomatic relations with the USSR. In October - November 1961, the National Liberation Front was founded which united the nationalist and patriotic forces of the country. In its activities, the Goulart government relied mainly on the national bourgeoisie and nationalist forces. It put forward a program of agrarian, financial, and banking reforms, education reform, etc. From December 1963 to March 1964, the Goulart government passed decrees restricting the export of profits from the country (not more than 10%) on invested foreign capital, establishing a state monopoly on oil and petroleum product imports, nationalizing oil refineries, nationalizing uncultivated land located within a 10-km strip along state railroads and highways and waterworks, canceling mining concessions (if companies do not exploit mines) and granting exclusive rights In the field of foreign policy, the Goulart government advocated general and complete disarmament and the peaceful coexistence of states with different socio-economic systems.

In 1961, [[Centrism|centrist]] president [[Jânio Quadro|Jânio Quadros]] resigned after seven months in office, leading to his [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] vice president, [[João Goulart]], becoming president. Goulart supported agrarian reform and universal suffrage and was supported by Catholic bishops and members of student [[Trade union|unions]]. The pro-imperialist bourgeoisie, connected with the U.S. monopolies, the latifundists, a certain part of the army, above all the reactionary generals and high officers, as well as the reactionary upper class of the Catholic Church, strongly opposed the measures of the Goulart government. Taking advantage of the ferment in the army, reaction turned to open action. The United States turned on him after he refused to ban leftists from his cabinet and the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] began funding his opponents in October 1962.<ref>{{Citation|author=Matias Spektor|year=2018|title=The United States and the 1964 Brazilian Military Coup|page=1–3|pdf=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4307854/mod_resource/content/1/Spektor%20US%20Military%20Coup%20in%20Brazil.pdf|publisher=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History}}</ref> On March 31, 1964 a military mutiny broke out in the state of Minas Gerais. As a result of the coup d'etat, a political-military group led by General U. Castelo Branco representing the interests of large landowners and financial-industrial groups connected with American monopolies came to power.<ref name=":0">{{News citation|author=[[Edmilson Costa]]|newspaper=[[Liberation School]]|title=Remembering the Years of Lead under Brazil’s military rule: AI-5 never again!|date=2019-12-23|url=https://www.liberationschool.org/remembering-the-years-of-lead-under-brazils-military-rule-ai-5-never-again/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515161458/https://liberationschool.org/remembering-the-years-of-lead-under-brazils-military-rule-ai-5-never-again/|archive-date=2021-05-15|retrieved=2022-06-21}}</ref>

==== Military dictatorship (1964–1985) ====
Soon after the coup, the military abolished the 1946 constitution and banned the [[General Confederation of Workers]] (CGT) and [[National Students' Union]] (UNE). Other [[Trade union|unions]] were allowed, but their leadership was controlled by the government. In 1968, military leader [[Artur da Costa e Silva]] passed Institutional Act No. 5, removing all limits on the military dictatorship's power. More than 300 politicians, including former presidents Goulart, Cuadros, and Kubitschek, as well as BKP Secretary General L. K. Prestes, were deprived of their political rights for 10 years under this act. Under the dictatorship, 50,000 people were arrested, 7,000 were exiled, and over 400 were killed. Brazil's intelligence service, the [[National Information Service|SNI]], was trained to torture dissidents by CIA agent [[Dan Mitrione]]. At two torture centers, the House of Death in Pétropolis and the Kerosene Nightclub in São Paulo, almost everyone who was tortured died.

On April 11 Castelo Branco, one of the organizers of the coup, was elected president. By decrees of military authorities and presidential decrees, the constitution of 1946 was practically abrogated, political parties were dissolved, the National Congress, state apparatus, army, educational institutions were purged, and control over trade unions was established. The Branco government (1964-67) disbanded the political parties and in 1966 it decreed the formation of two political groups: the National Union of Renewal and the Brazilian Democratic Movement, which was the legal opposition. In favor of U.S. interests, the government repealed the law restricting the export of profits from the country by foreign enterprises, severed diplomatic relations with Cuba, and participated in the U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic. The Branco government repeatedly expressed solidarity with the U.S. ruling circles that unleashed military action against Vietnam in 1964, and provided material support to the Saigon regime in South Vietnam.<ref>{{Citation|author=Rio de J.|year=1928—55|title=Documentos históricos, v. 1—109}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Rio de J.|year=1876—1957|title=Anais da Biblioteca nacional, v. I—75}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Glinkin A. N.|year=1959|title=The Modern History of Brazil}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Koval B. I.|year=1967|title=History of the Brazilian Proletariat (1857-1967)}}</ref>

In March 1967 General A. da Costa e Silva became president. The new government (1967-69) represented basically the same military-political and social forces as the previous military government. The internal political course remained essentially unchanged. In 1967-68, the student movement and workers' struggle against the military regime and its wage blocking policy intensified. Part of the Catholic clergy also opposed the government. The so-called Broad Front of the Legal Opposition was also a political opponent of the government. In April 1968, the government banned its activities. Contradictions within the government and its main supporter, the armed forces, became acute. In December 1968, the parliament was dissolved, and the power went to the President. At the beginning of 1969 some more decrees were issued to expand the President's authority, but all that did not lead to normalization of the political situation in the country. In August 1969, due to the illness of Costa e Silva, power passed into the hands of a triumvirate of military ministers, which was in fact a military coup. In October, General [[Emílio Garrastazu Médici]] took power and ruled until 1974. He abolished the National Congress, gave all power to the presidency, and banned public demonstrations. In the mid-1970s, ten members of the [[Brazilian Communist Party]] (PCB) Central Committee were murdered and their bodies were hidden in a river. Almost all leadership of the PCB was arrested and 2,000 militants were tortured. PCB leader [[Elson Costa]] was tortured for more than 20 days and was burned alive after refusing to give information.<ref name=":0" />

Institutional Act 5 was repealed in 1978<ref name=":0" /> and military rule ended in 1985.<ref>{{News citation|author=Nicholas Stender|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]|title=Bolsonaro’s coup threats rejected by people of Brazil|date=2021-09-08|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/bolsonaros-coup-threats-rejected-by-people-of-brazil/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220082726/https://www.liberationnews.org/bolsonaros-coup-threats-rejected-by-people-of-brazil/|archive-date=2021-12-20|retrieved=2022-06-21}}</ref>

==== Recent history (1985–present) ====
In 2002, [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] of the [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers' Party]] was elected president after building an alliance with centrists. Lula enacted social programs that reduced poverty and increased access to higher education. In 2010, Lula was succeeded by [[Dilma Rousseff]]. In 2014, an economic crisis began in Brazil and austerity measures were enacted. The right organized the impeachment of Rousseff and her vice president, Michel Temer, took power in 2016. In 2018, Lula was arrested and prevented from running for president. A left-wing coalition that included the PCB and the [[Socialism and Liberty Party]] supported the Workers' Party candidate [[Fernando Haddad]]. Haddad lost the election with 44.87% of the vote, and [[Jair Bolsonaro]] of the far-right "Brazil above Everything, God above Everyone" coalition won with 55.13% of the vote.<ref>{{News citation|author=Silvio Rodrigues|newspaper=Liberation School|title=Bolsonaro: A danger to Brazil, Latin America, and the whole world|date=2019-01-23|url=https://www.liberationschool.org/bolsonaro-a-danger-to-brazil-latin-america-and-the-whole-world/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117093248/https://www.liberationschool.org/bolsonaro-a-danger-to-brazil-latin-america-and-the-whole-world/|archive-date=2021-01-17|retrieved=2022-06-05}}</ref>

== Art ==
In the 1920s there was a new visual art of Brazil (one of its sources - the movement "Week of Modern Art", Sao Paulo, 1922), in which the quest in the spirit of social realism is intertwined with subjectivist experiments, In painting next to the majestic folk images of C. Portinari and E. di Cavalcanti, folk and bright decorative paintings of Tarsila do Amaral and self-taught artist Janira, expressionism (L. Segal), abstractionism and the latest modernist trends were developed. The democratic graphic art of Brazil (O. Goeldi, K. Skliar, R. Katz) is characterized by spiritual expressiveness. For sculpture (Brazil Giorgi, V. Breshere) oscillation between vital national images and abstract fantasies is characteristic. In the decorative arts ceramics and painting of fabrics are distinguished.

Diverse types of folk art Brazil - Negro (figurines, multicolored clothing, household utensils in the traditions of African art) and especially indigenous (figural ceramics of Karage people, wooden figurines of Cadiuveo people, polychrome painting of huts of Tukano people, carved zoomorphic Carib benches, patterned weaving, feather products, weaving from palm leaves and many others). Common types of folk dwellings (including indigenous dwellings) are dugouts, huts (piled in humid areas), canopies made of palm leaves.

== Economy ==
Brazil exports $28.6B of soybeans (13.36%), $26.5B of iron ore (12.38%), $19.8B of crude petroleum (9.25%), $8.95B of raw sugar (4.18%), $6.69B of bovine meat (3.12%) and $123.5B of other products, totaling $214B in exports. These exports flow mostly towards China ($67.9B), United States ($21.9B), [[Argentine Republic|Argentina]] ($8.57B), [[Netherlands]] ($6.7B), and [[Canada]] ($4.39B).<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC)|title=Brazil (BRA) exports, imports, and trade partners|date=2020|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/bra}}</ref>

== Politics ==

=== Class struggle in Brazil===
[[File:19th June Brazil São Paulo.png|thumb|Thousands took up the streets of São Paulo against the Federal Government in 19th June, 2021]]
In June 19th, 2021, protesters in over 400 cities in protest of the [[Fascism|fascist]] Jair Bolsonaro government. Militants and activists gathered safely, respecting social isolation guidelines related to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Textcite|author=Beatriz Drague Ramos|year=2021-06-21|title=Por vacinas para todos e contra Bolsonaro, manifestantes vão às ruas neste sábado|pdf=|publisher=Ponte Jornalismo|lg=|trans=For vaccines for all and against Bolsonaro, demonstrators take to the streets this Saturday|translang=Portuguese|web=https://ponte.org/por-vacinas-para-todos-e-contra-bolsonaro-manifestantes-vao-as-ruas-neste-sabado/}}</ref>

=== Police brutality ===
The Brazilian police killed at least 645 people in Rio de Janeiro in 2015. The police commit 20% of murders in Rio, and 80% of their victims are youth of African descent.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]|title=Brazil intensifies genocide against Africans in preparation for 2016 Olympic Games|date=2016-08-04|url=https://www.theburningspear.com/2016/08/Brazil-intensifies-genocide-against-Africans-in-preparation-for-2016-Olympic-Games|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816153336/https://www.theburningspear.com/2016/08/Brazil-intensifies-genocide-against-Africans-in-preparation-for-2016-Olympic-Games|archive-date=2021-08-16|retrieved=2022-08-27}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==

== Demographics ==

== Culture ==

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Countries]]
[[Category:Global south]]
[[Category:Latin American countries]]

Federative Republic of Brazil

2022-11-15T16:38:40Z

GheorgheCraciun:

{{Infobox country
| name = Federative Republic of Brazil
| native_name = República Federativa do Brasil
| image_flag = File:Flag of Brazil.svg
| image_coat = File:Coat of arms of Brazil.svg
| image_map = Brazil (ortographic projection).svg
| map_width = 220px
| capital = Brasília
| largest_city = São Paulo
| government_type = [[Federation|Federal]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[Bourgeois state|bourgeois state]]
| established_event1 = Proclamation of the Empire of Brazil
| established_date1 = 1822 September 7th
| established_event2 = Proclamation of the Republic of Brazil
| established_date2 = 1889 November 15th
| established_event3 = US-backed right-wing military dictatorship
| established_date3 = 1964 April 1st
| established_event4 = Redemocratization
| established_date4 = 1985 March 15th
| population_estimate = 211,755,692<ref>Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (2020). [https://www.in.gov.br/web/dou/-/portaria-n-pr-254-de-25-de-agosto-de-2020-274382852 Estimates published in official government documents].</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2020
| labour_force = 86.621 million<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy">CIA World Factbook (2020). ''[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/#economy Brazil – The world factbook (economy)]''</ref>
| labour_force_participation = 56.8%<ref>Trading economics (2021). ''[https://tradingeconomics.com/brazil/labor-force-participation-rate Brazil labor force participation rate]'' </ref>
| labour_occupation = agriculture: 9.4% industry: 32.1% services: 58.5%<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| unemployment = 14.7%<ref>Trading economics (2021). ''[https://tradingeconomics.com/brazil/unemployment-rate Brazil unemployment rate]'' </ref>
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 = Jair Bolsonaro
| leader_title2 = President of the Chamber of Deputies
| leader_name2 = Arthur Lira
| leader_title3 = President of the Federal Senate
| leader_name3 = Rodrigo Pacheco
| leader_title4 = President of the Supreme Federal Court
| leader_name4 = Luiz Fux
| GDP_nominal_year = 2019
| GDP_nominal = US$1.84 trillion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=BR GDP (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = US$8,717.18<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=BR GDP per capita (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| export_year = 2019
| export = US$263 billion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.CD?locations=BR Exports of goods and services (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| export_commodities = soybeans, crude petroleum, iron, corn, wood pulp products<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| export_partners = [[People's Republic of China|China]] (28%), [[United States of America|United States]] (13%)<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| import_year = 2019
| import = US$269 billion<ref>World Bank (2019). ''[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.IMP.GNFS.CD?locations=BR Imports of goods and services (current US$) - Brazil]''</ref>
| import_commodities = refined petroleum, vehicle parts, crude petroleum, integrated circuits, pesticides<ref name="CIA-factbook-economy"/>
| import_partners = [[People's Republic of China|China]] (21%), [[United States of America|United States]] (18%), [[Federal Republic of Germany|Germany]] (6%)
| external_debt = US$684.6 billion
| external_debt_rank = 20th
| Gini = 53.9%
| Gini_year = 2018
| Gini_rank = 9th
| HDI = 0.765
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_rank = 84th
| currency = Brazilian real
| currency_code = BRL
}}
'''Brazil''', officially the '''Federative Republic of Brazil''', is a country in [[Latin America]]. It is the most populous country in its continent. It is a [[Dependency|dependent]] [[Capitalism|capitalist]] country.<ref>{{Citation|author=Ruy Mauro Marini|year=1973|title=Dialética da dependência|mia=https://www.marxists.org/portugues/marini/1973/mes/dialetica.htm}}</ref>

Since 2019, the country has been under the government of [[Jair Bolsonaro]], who promoted and enacted policies of [[privatization]] of [[state-owned enterprises]] led by the [[Chicago Boys]] member Paulo Guedes. It is a de facto military, [[Fascism|fascist]] government, composed of 6.1 thousand military personnel in public offices,<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Correio Braziliense|title=Segundo TCU, 6,1 mil militares ocupam cargos no governo|date=2020-07-17|url=https://www.correiobraziliense.com.br/app/noticia/economia/2020/07/17/internas_economia,873137/segundo-tcu-6-1-mil-militares-ocupam-cargos-no-governo.shtml|retrieved=2022-07-16}}</ref> more than 2.3 thousand irregularly.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Carta Capital|title=CGU aponta pagamentos e ocupações irregulares de 2,3 mil militares|date=2022-07-12|url=https://www.cartacapital.com.br/politica/cgu-aponta-pagamentos-e-ocupacoes-irregulares-de-23-mil-militares/|retrieved=2022-07-16}}</ref> Attaching particular importance to strengthening its position in Latin America, the Brazilian government seeks to act as a leader of countries on the American continent.

== History ==

=== Pre-colonization (~60,000 BCE – 1500) ===
The appearance of man on the territory of Brazil refers to the Neolithic Age. Before the beginning of the 16th century, the territory of Brazil was inhabited by Indian tribes: Tupi Guarani, Tupinambas, Botokuds, Tamoyos, Koroados, etc. All of them were at the stage of tribal organization and lived in small communities. All of them were at the stage of tribal organization and lived in small communities. The tribal aristocracy was just beginning to form, and most of the tribes were nomadic. The Tupi-Guaranis led a settled way of life. In their communities priests and chiefs were distinguished, who had some personal property, including domestic slaves.

=== Colonization period (1500–1822) ===
In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared the land he discovered to be the possession of Portugal. The Portuguese took the valuable mahogany pau-brasil (pau-brasil, hence the name of the country) from Brazil In the 30s of the 16th century the territory of Brazil coast was divided into 13 capitals which lands the donatarii - natives of the Portuguese feudal nobility - received as beneficiaries from the king. In 1549 a governorship general was established in Brazil with its capital in Salvador (Bahia). In the same year the Jesuits appeared in the colony. They established Indian settlements (missions), which were a branch of the extensive feudal organization of the Jesuit order with elements of slavery and patriarchal clan relations. The conquest of the territory of Brazil took place in the context of an intense struggle of Portugal with its rivals, mainly France and Holland. In 1630 the Dutch managed to capture the territory of the Pernambuco captaincy, but in 1654 they were expelled from the territory of Brazil On the colonized territory, from the 16th century, big landowners' estates (sesmaria) with the use of feudal and slave forms of exploitation of Indians and blacks started to form (the first parties of blacks were brought to Brazil in the 30-ies of the 16th century).

Production of goods imported from the metropolis (wheat, vegetable oil, wine, etc.) was forbidden in the colony. Only cotton, rice, corn were cultivated, but sugar cane was the main crop. Sugar cane plantations required large amount of labor. From the late 17th century the importation of slaves from Africa intensified, especially in connection with the discovery of gold and diamonds. The brutal exploitation of slaves on the plantations led to a large mortality rate. Indians and blacks put up stubborn resistance to their oppressors. In 1630 escaped slaves created in one of the remote regions of the Pernambuco state - the Republic of Palmaris that existed till 1697. In the 2nd half of the 17th century Portugal continued the centralization of the colonial government and the prohibitive trade policy. The local government had limited power, trade with the colony was given to a small number of companies, the main role among which played the Portuguese General Company of the Brazilian Trade, founded in 1649. From 1658 it raised sharply the taxes collected in the colony, in 1665 it introduced a salt monopoly. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the first speeches of colonists-Brazilians against the Portuguese authorities took place (1684, 1720). To contain the growth of discontent, the Portuguese government allowed the foundation of manufactories and expelled the Jesuits (1759). However at the end of the 18th century Portugal forbade the foundation of manufactures, the building of ships, and printing.

Gold and diamond mining became very important during this period, turning Brazil into the richest colony in Portugal. The so-called gold rush stimulated the foundation of new cities and the building of roads. Rio de Janeiro became the main point linking Brazil with the outside world. In 1763, the capital was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The contradictions between Banyan and the metropolis aggravated at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, which put all possible obstacles in the way of its economic, political, and cultural development. In 1789, a conspiracy led by Tiradentis was uncovered in the province of Minas Gerais. The conspirators intended to establish an independent republic and the gradual abolition of slavery. In 1797 rebellions against Portugal broke out in the province of Bahia, in which soldiers and the urban poor, including mulattoes and Negroes, participated. In 1807 in connection with the occupation of Portugal by Napoleon's troops, the Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro. The stay of the court had as a consequence a number of innovations. The captaincies came to be called provinces. Brazilian ports were opened to trade with other countries. Newspapers, magazines, a Brazilian bank, a national library and museum were founded. The royal court depended entirely on British patronage. By the treaty of 1810 Great Britain obtained great advantages in trade with Brazil The stay in Brazil of the royal court, the Portuguese army, English advisers and the expenses connected with it increased the tax oppression and caused a further growth of discontent among the working masses of Brazil with Portuguese domination. In 1815 Brazil received the status of a kingdom, becoming part of the "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarve". Formally, Brazil ceased to be a colony, but Portuguese authorities were still in charge in Brazil The movement against the rule of the colonizers did not weaken. In 1817, a rebellion broke out in the province of Pernambuco which then spread to Ceará, Paraíba, Maranhão and Alagoas. The rebels proclaimed the province of Pernambuco a republic, formed a provisional government, and appealed to all the people of Brazil to end Portuguese rule and establish an independent Brazilian republic; the revolutionary government lasted 72 days.

The bourgeois revolution of 1820 in Portugal led to a new upsurge in the movement for the independence of Brazil King João VI was forced to leave Brazil (1821), leaving his son Pedro I. as regent of Brazil The liberation movement under the slogan "Freedom or Death!" spread throughout Brazil On September 7, 1822, Pedro I. declared Brazil an independent empire. The day became a national holiday.

=== Empire era (1822–1889) ===
In March 1824 the first constitution of the country came into force, according to which Brazil was proclaimed a constitutional monarchy. Portugal was forced to recognize the independence of Brazil (1825). The three-hundred-year colonial period ended, but the monarchy in Brazil survived. Under Emperors Pedro I of Brazil (1822-31) and his son Pedro II (1831-89) the country became economically dependent on Great Britain. In the peculiar combination of slave-holding, feudal and nascent capitalist production relations, slave-holding relations prevailed in the first half of the 19th century, especially in the main branches of Brazil economy: coffee and sugar production and in the mining industry. The political development of Brazil was marked by the persistent struggle of the masses against the monarchical regime and reaction, for a federal democratic republic and the abolition of slavery. In 1824-30, there were continuous uprisings of Negro slaves in the province of Bahia. In June 1831 a popular republican uprising broke out in the province of Rio de Janeiro. In 1833-1849 a wave of armed popular uprisings broke out in most provinces demanding the establishment of a democratic republic. The largest were the "farrapos" (ragamuffins) in the province of Rio Grande do Sul (1835- 1845) and the "praieiros" (coast-dwellers) in the province of Pernambuco (1848-1849).

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, with the abolition of the slave trade, slave labour was gradually replaced by free labour. The new production relations led to a more noticeable development of industry and agriculture. The process of formation of capitalist relations was accelerated by the growth of European immigration that began in the 50s and became particularly widespread in the 80s-90s.

In 1865-70 Brazil in alliance with Argentina and Uruguay fought a war for the dismemberment of Paraguay. During the war, the abolitionist movement intensified. In 1888, the so-called Golden Law on the abolition of slavery was issued. Anti-monarchist republican movement, which developed in parallel with the abolitionist movement, was led by the Republican Party (founded in 1869). There were popular anti-monarchist demonstrations in the country. On November 15, 1889 Emperor Pedro II was overthrown and Brazil was proclaimed a federal republic. The Constituent Assembly convened in February 1891 adopted a constitution similar to the U.S. Constitution. The provinces were transformed into states. The capital, Rio de Janeiro, was made a federal district.

=== Republic era (1889–1964) ===
With the proclamation of the republic, political power in the country remained in the hands of the landlords and the big bourgeoisie, connected with foreign, mainly English, capital. The government, protecting the interests of the ruling classes, brutally cracked down on the democratic movement. In 1896-97 a peasant land movement broke out in Bahia, near Canudus. It was suppressed by the government forces, but the peasants' fight for the land continued. With the abolition of slavery the capitalist development of Brazil accelerated considerably. The rapid growth of enterprises in towns led to an increase in the number of workers. The first trade unions and workers' organizations began to appear at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. In 1892 a workers' congress was held in Rio de Janeiro, which attempted to establish a workers' party. The Socialist Center was founded in Santos that year and led the May Day demonstrations of 1895 in Santos and São Paulo. By 1896 there were several Marxist circles in the country. A socialist newspaper, Sosialista (O Socialista), began to be published in São Paulo. In 1905-07 there were workers' demonstrations and strikes in Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Santos, and in 1906 a workers' congress was held in Rio de Janeiro.

Foreign capital, which had penetrated the economy of Brazil, directed it in a direction beneficial to its interests. English and American monopolies seized fertile land. Coffee, cotton, and sugar took a leading place in the economy of Brazil In 1910 Brazil became a member of the Pan American Union. From that time American capital began to penetrate strongly into the Brazil economy, becoming after the World War I, 1914-1918 the main rival of British capital. From 1917 Brazil participated in the war on the side of the Entente.

Under the influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, the workers' movement in Brazil began to rise. In mass demonstrations and rallies workers openly expressed their sympathy for the ideas of the Russian revolution. In large cities, Marxist groups (socialist and communist circles and leagues) began to be created. In March 1922 the Brazilian Communist Party (BCP) was founded. In July 1922 there was an uprising of the capital's garrison in the Copacabana Fortress. In July 1924 the garrison of São Paulo rebelled. The city's masses supported the rebels. The rebels seized the city and held it for three weeks. Under the influence of events in Sao Paulo rebellions broke out in many states of Brazil. L. C. Prestes, who led the rebellion in the south of Brazil, led with continuous fighting the rebel column to the N. of the country (October 1924-February 1927). The governments of A. Bernardis (1922-26) and V. Luis Pereira (1926-30) suppressed the uprisings.

The economic crisis of 1929-33 hit Brazil with great force. During the crisis years, 2.4 million tons of coffee were destroyed as prices for all of Brazil's main exports - coffee, cocoa, cotton, and livestock products - plummeted on the world market. The working class suffered from unemployment. The crisis revealed the extreme backwardness of the social structure and Brazil's dependence on foreign capital. On the eve of the presidential elections of 1930, two hostile political factions had formed: the Conservative Concentration, which represented the interests of the landowners who relied on English imperialism, and the Liberal Alliance, which represented the bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisized landowners connected with the US imperialists. As a result of the armed struggle for power in November 1930 the Liberal Alliance supporter, J. Vargas, won and formed an interim government. In fact, a dictatorship was established in Brazil Vargas, who, depending on the situation, changed the methods of government in the interests of the bourgeoisie and landlords. The German and Italian monopolies intensively penetrated the economy of Brazil German monopolies acquired controlling stakes in a number of large manufacturing enterprises, iron mines, and vast lands in Riachan (on the N.-E.); the "German Bank for South America" established in Brazil 300 of its branches. The economic expansion of German imperialism strengthened fascist elements in the political life of the country. The Fascist party, the Integralist Action (founded in 1933), was active in Brazil The working class and the masses offered resolute resistance to the onslaught of fascism. In March 1935 the anti-fascist forces united into the National Liberation Alliance (NLA), which put forward the task of fighting against fascism and imperialism and for the implementation of an agrarian reform. In July the government forbade the activities of the NLA. In November 1935 armed uprisings took place under the leadership of the ELA in Rio de Janeiro, Niteroi, Recife, and Natal, drowned in blood. Brazil was declared a state of siege, tens of thousands of revolutionaries were arrested, including L. C. Prestes and other Communist Party leaders. The organization of corporate unions dependent on the government was intensified. In 1936 Vargas issued decrees on minimum wages, nationalization of the transport company Lloyd Brazileiro, owned by English capital, pensions for industrial workers, and in 1938 on nationalization of oil sources and wage increases for certain categories of workers. These measures were conditioned both by the struggle of workers for their rights and interests and by the development of capitalism in Brazil As a spokesman for the bourgeoisie, Vargas understood the need to increase the role of the state for the country's economic development.

In November 1937 Vargas dissolved the congress and promulgated a constitution proclaiming Brazil "a new state." In December, all political parties were dissolved. Vargas launched a social demagogy, portraying himself as the founder of a "new state of justice.

During [[World War II]], 1939-45, the penetration of U.S. imperialism into Brazil intensified. In January 1941 an agreement was signed to send a U.S. military mission to Brazil In January 1942, Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with Germany and Italy and in August 1942 declared war on them (Brazil declared war on Japan on June 6, 1945). The defeat of the Fascist powers gave a powerful impetus to the development of the democratic movement in Brazil Under the pressure of the masses, the Vargas government had granted amnesty to political prisoners in the beginning of 1945, had allowed the political parties, including the Communist Party, to work and had established diplomatic relations with the USSR (April 2, 1945). In the same year several political parties were founded: the Social-Democratic Party, reflecting the interests of large latifundists; the National Democratic Union, uniting broad sections of the national bourgeoisie, led by the leaders of the so-called Western, anti-communist orientation, and the Brazilian Trabalist Party, representing the middle and petty bourgeoisie and a considerable number of workers.

Frightened by the growth of the democratic movement, the most reactionary circles in Brazil, closely affiliated with the United States, decided to overthrow the Vargas government. On October 29 Generals G. Monteiro and E. G. Dutra organized a military coup. Parliamentary and presidential elections were held in December, with considerable success for the Communists, who for the first time nominated their candidates in national elections. The government was headed by General E. G. Dutra (1946-51). In 1946 a new constitution was adopted, reflecting some of the democratic gains of the workers, the rights of the people to the subsoil wealth of Brazil However, already in May 1947 reaction went on the offensive. The government banned the activities of the BKP, the Union of Communist Youth (founded in 1943) and the Trade Union Confederation of Workers (founded in 1946). In October 1947 Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR, and in May 1949 the Movement of Supporters of Peace was banned in the country. The Dutra government followed the policy of militarization and the Cold War. U.S. direct investment in Brazil rose from $323 million in 1946 to $803 million in 1951. The capitulation to U.S. imperialism and the repressive regime aroused popular discontent. As a result of the unfolding nationalist movement, the Vargas government (1951-54) came to power again. Due to the poor state of the finances, Vargas received as early as 1952 a $300 million loan from the United States and opened up access to U.S. private capital investment. At the same time, in 1953 the Vargas government created the state oil company Petrobras, which established a state monopoly (with the participation of Brazilian private capital) for exploration, production, and refining of Brazilian oil, and in April 1954 it submitted to Congress a bill to create the state company Electrobras. The labor movement in Brazil was intensifying. In 1953 800 thousand workers took part in the strike struggle (in the preceding 5 years an average of 200-300 thousand people). The trade unions united over 1.3 million workers. In May 1954, under the pressure of the masses Vargas declared that the minimum wage of workers and employees was to be doubled in comparison with 1951. The reactionary circles of the latifundists, big capitalists and the military believed that Vargas's policy stimulated the development of mass popular uprisings and threatened the existing order. In August, a meeting of air force generals decided to demand Vargas's resignation as "the only means" to resolve the "national crisis." Vargas committed suicide. The military and reaction tried to establish a dictatorial regime in Brazil The people thwarted their plans with mass demonstrations. The government of J. Kubicek de Oliveira (1956-60) came to power, representing both patriotic figures and reactionary politicians connected with foreign, mainly American, capital. Often reactionaries were able to exert decisive influence on government policy. In 1957 the Kubitschek government signed an agreement with the United States on giving up Fernando de Noronha for a five-year term as a U.S. military base.

In the 1950s, Brazil had an automobile industry, increased oil production and refining, ferrous metal smelting, cement production, and power generation. From agrarian Brazil was transforming into an agrarian-industrial country with large industrial centers: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Recife, etc. The opening of the new capital (April 21, 1960) - Brasilia - signaled the economic strengthening of the Brazilian bourgeoisie. However, many important sectors of the Brazilian economy remained in the hands of foreign capital, mainly the United States. Latifundia and backward relations persisted in agriculture.

In the 1960 elections, with the support of the bourgeoisie, latifundists, the Catholic Church, some social democrats and the Brazilian Trabalist Party, J. Cuadros was elected president. The Cuadros government charted a more independent foreign policy, took steps to establish diplomatic and trade relations with the USSR and other dependant countries, and strengthened the country's financial position. This caused discontent among reactionary circles connected with American monopolies. Under their pressure, Cuadros was forced to resign in August 1961. Nationalist forces opposed to the desire of reaction to establish a dictatorship in the country, achieved the accession to the presidency of Vice-President J. Goulart. Goulart's government which came to power in September 1961 (1961-64) restored diplomatic relations with the USSR. In October - November 1961, the National Liberation Front was founded which united the nationalist and patriotic forces of the country. In its activities, the Goulart government relied mainly on the national bourgeoisie and nationalist forces. It put forward a program of agrarian, financial, and banking reforms, education reform, etc. From December 1963 to March 1964, the Goulart government passed decrees restricting the export of profits from the country (not more than 10%) on invested foreign capital, establishing a state monopoly on oil and petroleum product imports, nationalizing oil refineries, nationalizing uncultivated land located within a 10-km strip along state railroads and highways and waterworks, canceling mining concessions (if companies do not exploit mines) and granting exclusive rights In the field of foreign policy, the Goulart government advocated general and complete disarmament and the peaceful coexistence of states with different socio-economic systems.

In 1961, [[Centrism|centrist]] president [[Jânio Quadro|Jânio Quadros]] resigned after seven months in office, leading to his [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] vice president, [[João Goulart]], becoming president. Goulart supported agrarian reform and universal suffrage and was supported by Catholic bishops and members of student [[Trade union|unions]]. The pro-imperialist bourgeoisie, connected with the U.S. monopolies, the latifundists, a certain part of the army, above all the reactionary generals and high officers, as well as the reactionary upper class of the Catholic Church, strongly opposed the measures of the Goulart government. Taking advantage of the ferment in the army, reaction turned to open action. The United States turned on him after he refused to ban leftists from his cabinet and the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] began funding his opponents in October 1962.<ref>{{Citation|author=Matias Spektor|year=2018|title=The United States and the 1964 Brazilian Military Coup|page=1–3|pdf=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4307854/mod_resource/content/1/Spektor%20US%20Military%20Coup%20in%20Brazil.pdf|publisher=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History}}</ref> On March 31, 1964 a military mutiny broke out in the state of Minas Gerais. As a result of the coup d'etat, a political-military group led by General U. Castelo Branco representing the interests of large landowners and financial-industrial groups connected with American monopolies came to power.<ref name=":0">{{News citation|author=[[Edmilson Costa]]|newspaper=[[Liberation School]]|title=Remembering the Years of Lead under Brazil’s military rule: AI-5 never again!|date=2019-12-23|url=https://www.liberationschool.org/remembering-the-years-of-lead-under-brazils-military-rule-ai-5-never-again/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515161458/https://liberationschool.org/remembering-the-years-of-lead-under-brazils-military-rule-ai-5-never-again/|archive-date=2021-05-15|retrieved=2022-06-21}}</ref>

==== Military dictatorship (1964–1985) ====
Soon after the coup, the military abolished the 1946 constitution and banned the [[General Confederation of Workers]] (CGT) and [[National Students' Union]] (UNE). Other [[Trade union|unions]] were allowed, but their leadership was controlled by the government. In 1968, military leader [[Artur da Costa e Silva]] passed Institutional Act No. 5, removing all limits on the military dictatorship's power. More than 300 politicians, including former presidents Goulart, Cuadros, and Kubitschek, as well as BKP Secretary General L. K. Prestes, were deprived of their political rights for 10 years under this act. Under the dictatorship, 50,000 people were arrested, 7,000 were exiled, and over 400 were killed. Brazil's intelligence service, the [[National Information Service|SNI]], was trained to torture dissidents by CIA agent [[Dan Mitrione]]. At two torture centers, the House of Death in Pétropolis and the Kerosene Nightclub in São Paulo, almost everyone who was tortured died.

On April 11 Castelo Branco, one of the organizers of the coup, was elected president. By decrees of military authorities and presidential decrees, the constitution of 1946 was practically abrogated, political parties were dissolved, the National Congress, state apparatus, army, educational institutions were purged, and control over trade unions was established. The Branco government (1964-67) disbanded the political parties and in 1966 it decreed the formation of two political groups: the National Union of Renewal and the Brazilian Democratic Movement, which was the legal opposition. In favor of U.S. interests, the government repealed the law restricting the export of profits from the country by foreign enterprises, severed diplomatic relations with Cuba, and participated in the U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic. The Branco government repeatedly expressed solidarity with the U.S. ruling circles that unleashed military action against Vietnam in 1964, and provided material support to the Saigon regime in South Vietnam.<ref>{{Citation|author=Rio de J.|year=1928—55|title=Documentos históricos, v. 1—109}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Rio de J.|year=1876—1957|title=Anais da Biblioteca nacional, v. I—75}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Glinkin A. N.|year=1959|title=The Modern History of Brazil}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Koval B. I.|year=1967|title=History of the Brazilian Proletariat (1857-1967)}}</ref>

In March 1967 General A. da Costa e Silva became president. The new government (1967-69) represented basically the same military-political and social forces as the previous military government. The internal political course remained essentially unchanged. In 1967-68, the student movement and workers' struggle against the military regime and its wage blocking policy intensified. Part of the Catholic clergy also opposed the government. The so-called Broad Front of the Legal Opposition was also a political opponent of the government. In April 1968, the government banned its activities. Contradictions within the government and its main supporter, the armed forces, became acute. In December 1968, the parliament was dissolved, and the power went to the President. At the beginning of 1969 some more decrees were issued to expand the President's authority, but all that did not lead to normalization of the political situation in the country. In August 1969, due to the illness of Costa e Silva, power passed into the hands of a triumvirate of military ministers, which was in fact a military coup. In October, General [[Emílio Garrastazu Médici]] took power and ruled until 1974. He abolished the National Congress, gave all power to the presidency, and banned public demonstrations. In the mid-1970s, ten members of the [[Brazilian Communist Party]] (PCB) Central Committee were murdered and their bodies were hidden in a river. Almost all leadership of the PCB was arrested and 2,000 militants were tortured. PCB leader [[Elson Costa]] was tortured for more than 20 days and was burned alive after refusing to give information.<ref name=":0" />

Institutional Act 5 was repealed in 1978<ref name=":0" /> and military rule ended in 1985.<ref>{{News citation|author=Nicholas Stender|newspaper=[[Liberation News]]|title=Bolsonaro’s coup threats rejected by people of Brazil|date=2021-09-08|url=https://www.liberationnews.org/bolsonaros-coup-threats-rejected-by-people-of-brazil/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220082726/https://www.liberationnews.org/bolsonaros-coup-threats-rejected-by-people-of-brazil/|archive-date=2021-12-20|retrieved=2022-06-21}}</ref>

==== Recent history (1985–present) ====
In 2002, [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] of the [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers' Party]] was elected president after building an alliance with centrists. Lula enacted social programs that reduced poverty and increased access to higher education. In 2010, Lula was succeeded by [[Dilma Rousseff]]. In 2014, an economic crisis began in Brazil and austerity measures were enacted. The right organized the impeachment of Rousseff and her vice president, Michel Temer, took power in 2016. In 2018, Lula was arrested and prevented from running for president. A left-wing coalition that included the PCB and the [[Socialism and Liberty Party]] supported the Workers' Party candidate [[Fernando Haddad]]. Haddad lost the election with 44.87% of the vote, and [[Jair Bolsonaro]] of the far-right "Brazil above Everything, God above Everyone" coalition won with 55.13% of the vote.<ref>{{News citation|author=Silvio Rodrigues|newspaper=Liberation School|title=Bolsonaro: A danger to Brazil, Latin America, and the whole world|date=2019-01-23|url=https://www.liberationschool.org/bolsonaro-a-danger-to-brazil-latin-america-and-the-whole-world/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117093248/https://www.liberationschool.org/bolsonaro-a-danger-to-brazil-latin-america-and-the-whole-world/|archive-date=2021-01-17|retrieved=2022-06-05}}</ref>

== Economy ==
Brazil exports $28.6B of soybeans (13.36%), $26.5B of iron ore (12.38%), $19.8B of crude petroleum (9.25%), $8.95B of raw sugar (4.18%), $6.69B of bovine meat (3.12%) and $123.5B of other products, totaling $214B in exports. These exports flow mostly towards China ($67.9B), United States ($21.9B), [[Argentine Republic|Argentina]] ($8.57B), [[Netherlands]] ($6.7B), and [[Canada]] ($4.39B).<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC)|title=Brazil (BRA) exports, imports, and trade partners|date=2020|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/bra}}</ref>

== Politics ==

=== Class struggle in Brazil===
[[File:19th June Brazil São Paulo.png|thumb|Thousands took up the streets of São Paulo against the Federal Government in 19th June, 2021]]
In June 19th, 2021, protesters in over 400 cities in protest of the [[Fascism|fascist]] Jair Bolsonaro government. Militants and activists gathered safely, respecting social isolation guidelines related to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Textcite|author=Beatriz Drague Ramos|year=2021-06-21|title=Por vacinas para todos e contra Bolsonaro, manifestantes vão às ruas neste sábado|pdf=|publisher=Ponte Jornalismo|lg=|trans=For vaccines for all and against Bolsonaro, demonstrators take to the streets this Saturday|translang=Portuguese|web=https://ponte.org/por-vacinas-para-todos-e-contra-bolsonaro-manifestantes-vao-as-ruas-neste-sabado/}}</ref>

=== Police brutality ===
The Brazilian police killed at least 645 people in Rio de Janeiro in 2015. The police commit 20% of murders in Rio, and 80% of their victims are youth of African descent.<ref>{{Web citation|newspaper=[[The Burning Spear]]|title=Brazil intensifies genocide against Africans in preparation for 2016 Olympic Games|date=2016-08-04|url=https://www.theburningspear.com/2016/08/Brazil-intensifies-genocide-against-Africans-in-preparation-for-2016-Olympic-Games|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816153336/https://www.theburningspear.com/2016/08/Brazil-intensifies-genocide-against-Africans-in-preparation-for-2016-Olympic-Games|archive-date=2021-08-16|retrieved=2022-08-27}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==

== Demographics ==

== Culture ==

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Countries]]
[[Category:Global south]]
[[Category:Latin American countries]]

Republic of Bulgaria

2022-11-15T15:24:13Z

GheorgheCraciun:

{{Infobox country|name=Republic of Bulgaria|government_type=Unitary parliamentary republic|anthem=Мила Родино|map_width=200|leader_name3=[[Kiril Petkov Petkov]]|leader_name2=[[Iliana Iotova]]|leader_name1=[[Rumen Radev]]|leader_title3=Prime Minister|leader_title2=Vice President|leader_title1=President|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]|native_name=Република България|area_km2=110,993.6|population_estimate_year=2021|population_estimate=6,875,040|image_map=Bulgaria map.png|motto=Съединението прави силата|flag_alt=Three horizontal stripes; from top to bottom, white, green, and red.|image_coat=Bulgarian COA.png|image_flag=Bulgarian flag.png|englishmotto="Unity makes strength"}}

'''Bulgaria''', officially the '''Republic of Bulgaria''', was the first country of the Eastern Bloc to break away from the capitalist system and take the road of socialist development, as a result of the world-historical victory of the revolutionary struggle of the working people, led by the working class and under the leadership of the Communist Party. Since capitalism was restored in 1990, 57% of Bulgarians say the economy has become worse<ref>{{News citation|journalist=Richard Wike, et al.|date=2019-10-14|title=Political and economic changes since the fall of communism|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/14/political-and-economic-changes-since-the-fall-of-communism/|newspaper=Pew Research Center|retrieved=2022-02-17}}</ref> and less than 12% say ordinary people are better off.<ref name=":0">{{News citation|author=F.S.|newspaper=Political Affairs|title=An experiment in living socialism: Bulgaria then and now|date=2013-10-02|url=http://politicalaffairs.net/an-experiment-in-living-socialism-bulgaria-then-and-now/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618093545/http://politicalaffairs.net/an-experiment-in-living-socialism-bulgaria-then-and-now/|archive-date=2022-06-18|retrieved=2022-06-27}}</ref>

Bulgaria is located in the eastern part of the [[Balkans|Balkan Peninsula]], bordering [[Romania]], [[Republic of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Republic of North Macedonia|North Macedonia]], [[Hellenic Republic|Greece]] and [[Republic of Turkey|Turkey]]. The territory of Bulgaria is 110,993 km2.<ref>{{Citation|author=Penin, Rumen|year=2007|title=Природна география на България [Natural Geography of Bulgaria]}}</ref> The capital is [[Sofia]]. Administratively, Bulgaria is divided into 28 okrugs, and each okrug into a number of obshtini (a total of 265, divided by the cities). The largest cities are Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna, Burgas, Ruse, Stara Zagora and Pleven.

== Georgaphy ==
Bulgaria is located in the temperate zone; in terms of natural conditions it occupies a transitional area between Eastern and Central Europe on the north and the Mediterranean on the south.

=== Topography ===
The terrain of Bulgaria is extremely varied. There are mountainous areas (altitudes above 600m) which occupy 23% of the country's area and hilly areas (from 200m to 600m) which account for 41% of the country's area. There are also significant plains (up to 200m) which occupy almost a third of the country's area - 31%. In the north of Bulgaria the Danube plain rises from 100-380 m in the west to 500 m in the east. Deep river valleys partition it into hilly and plateau-like areas. The plain drops to a high escarpment (up to 100 m) in the Danube River valley, and to the east, it becomes the Dobroudja Plateau. The Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains) are situated to the south of the plain and cross all of Balkan from W. to E. The middle and western parts of the mountains are higher (their maximum height is 1,500-2,000 m, while the eastern part is lower (1,600-1,100 m) and more rugged. South of the middle part of Stara Planina stretches a chain of less high mountains Sredna Gora (up to 1604 m high). Sredna Gora and Stara Planina are connected in some places by cusps of 1000-1300 m, between which there are tectonic depressions (Kazanlak, Karlovo, etc.) that are called Podbalkan Depression. The Rila, Pirin and Rhodope Mountains occupy the south and south-west of the country. Rila and Pirin are the highest part of the entire Balkan Peninsula (Musala, 2925 m, Vihren, 2914 m), with alpine-type peaks. Between the Rhodopes and Sredna Gora along the Maritsa River stretches the most fertile in the country Verhnefrakiyskaya lowland. It is separated from the Black Sea Lowland by the Tuncian Hills and the Strandzha Mountains (Istranca in Turkish). The Black Sea coast of B. is mostly low, in some places with steep shores; there are many beaches. In the extreme south-east are the northern spurs of the Strandzha Mountains.<ref>{{Citation|author=Георгиев (Georgiev), Владимир (Vladimir); et al.|year=1986|title=Енциклопедия България [Encyclopaedia Bulgaria]}}</ref>

=== Geology ===
In terms of geological structure the territory of Bulgaria belongs to the Mediterranean folded belt. In the north of Bulgaria there is the Mysian platform, composed of horizontally lying Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments, deposited on folded Precambrian rocks. To the south stretches the Pre-Balkan zone, composed of folded sediments of the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene. The Stara Planina megantiklinorium occupies the axial part of the Balkans, composed of Paleozoic rocks in the core and Jurassic and Triassic rocks on the E. On the wings and in narrow synclines, there are Mesozoic and Paleogene deposits. Further to the south, there is the Sredna Gora zone, consisting of horticlinorie, formed by Paleozoic and Precambrian metamorphic rocks, and graben-synclinorie, filled mainly with Upper Cretaceous flysch and andesites. From the north, the Sredna Gora zone is bounded by the Zabalkan deep fault, along which there are structures of pinnacles and depressions made by Neogene-Paleogene continental sediments. The southern part of Bulgaria is occupied by the Rhodope Massif, consisting of Precambrian crystalline rocks overlain by Paleogene sediments. It is bounded on the north by the Maritsa Fault, and on the west by the Kraiště fold-break system.

The most important minerals: coal (East Maritsa, Pernik, Bobov Dol basins), iron ores (Kremikovskoe deposit), lead-zinc ores (Rodop massif), copper ores (Medet deposit), rock salt (district Mirovo), oil (Mizi platform), mineral waters, construction materials.

=== Climate ===
Most of Bulgaria has a temperate, continental climate; in the south, especially along the valleys of the Struma and Mesta Rivers, the climate is transitional to the Mediterranean climate. There is an altitudinal climatic zonation in the mountains. An important climatic boundary between N. and S. is the Stara Planina. The average January temperature ranges from -2° C to +2.5° C in the plains and up to -10.8° C in the mountains (Musala); in July, it is 25.1° C (Petrich) and 5.1° C (Musala), respectively. Precipitation is brought by Western and Northwestern winds, their annual precipitation is 450-600 mm in the lowlands and 850-1300 mm in the mountains, with a maximum in the first half of summer. The driest time of year is the beginning of autumn. Droughts occur in summer in many areas (mainly on the plains). The snow cover stays for 50-70 days in the north, 20-30 days in the south, and for up to 7-8 months in the mountains.

=== Hydrography ===
There are relatively many rivers in Bulgaria (except for the eastern part of the Danubian hilly plain), but most of them are of short length and mountainous nature and become very shallow in late summer. The Danube is the only navigable river. The biggest tributary of the Danube in Bulgaria is the Iskar River. The most full-flowing of the Aegean Rivers is the Maritsa (its main tributaries are the Tunza and the Arda), then the Strouma and the Mesta. The rivers are important as sources of hydropower and irrigation. Many reservoirs have been built on them. There are few lakes (mainly of glacial origin, in the Rila and Pirin Mountains) and they are not large. There are more than 500 mineral springs in Bulgaria.

=== Soils and vegetation ===
Soils and vegetation. Soils in the Danube Plain are predominantly black and gray forest ashy, brown and dense black soils ("smolnytsi") to the south of Stara Planina, and brown forest, mountain forest, dark-colored, mountain-meadow and skeleton soils in the mountains. In floodplains - fertile alluvial soils.

Vegetation is represented by forests, occupying about 3.7 mln ha (1968) or about 1/3 of the territory of the country (including more than 1 mln ha occupied by man-made forest plantations). 75.3% are deciduous forests, mainly composed of oak and hornbeam on the N. and eastern beech on the S.-E. Floodplain forests - longhouses (elm, ash, etc.) are characteristic. In the mountains, higher deciduous forests up to heights of 1700-2000 m are coniferous forests of pine, spruce and fir (24.7%). 87.8% of the forests are used mainly for timber production, 5.8% are protective forests, 2.1% are resort forests, 1.7% are green forests, 0.5% are shelterbelt forests, and 0.4% are protected areas (1965). Shibliak (bush oak, Derzhi tree, juniper, in the South - also pistachio) is typical of shrub thickets. Grass formations are represented by dry, subalpine and alpine meadows and steppe vegetation in the North.<ref>{{Citation|author=Eramov, Р. A.|year=1961-66|title=География на България [Geography of Bulgaria]}}</ref>

=== Fauna ===
Animals of different origins are represented in Bulgaria. Central European species are mainly found in northern Bulgaria and Stara Planina, steppe species are mainly found in eastern Bulgaria, arcto-alpine species in the upper mountain belts, and Mediterranean species in the southern part of the country. In the forests one can meet red deer, fallow deer, roe deer, chamois, and wild boar; in the mountains black polecat, weasel, badger, wolf, fox, European cat, squirrel, brown hare, dormouse, and small rodents are typical. In treeless northern areas - gopher, polecat, hamster, gnatcat. The bird fauna is rich, consisting of species that are common in southern and central Europe. A variety of reptiles, especially in the south. In the Black Sea near the coast of Bulgaria pelamid, mackerel, mullet, flounder are caught; in the Danube - starred sturgeon, pike-perch, carp.

== History ==
The earliest period of Bulgarian history is represented by Palaeolithic and Neolithic monuments. The monuments of the Eeolithic culture are close to the so-called Trypillian culture of the late 3rd and early 2nd millenniums BC, which was widespread in the Diepris-Distrovsky basin. The funerary inclusions of the burial mounds testify to the elements of the Scythian culture in the Balkan Peninsula in the middle of the 1st millennium BC.

The population had a difficult process of mutual influence of different ethnic elements. The [[Slavs]] were the predominant ethnic elements on the whole Balkan Peninsula in the middle of the 7th century. By that time the land cultivation and cattle breeding were the main occupations of the people who lived on the territory of the modern Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The social and economic organization of the Slavs was the tribal community. The development of productive forces resulted in the disintegration of the primitive communal relations and the transition to a class society: the power of tribal chiefs strengthened, the property stratification increased and the relations of classes began to replace kinship relations which gave rise to the state.

In the 7th century in the Danube part of the Balkan Peninsula there was a union of seven Slavic tribes which was the initial form of the political union and became the basis of the appearing state.

In the second half of the 7th century Bulgarian tribes under the leadership of [[Asparuh]] appeared on the right bank of the Danube. These tribes came into contact with the local Slavic population. Subsequently Bulgarians were completely assimilated into the main mass of Slavs, giving them their tribal name - Bulgarians. Bulgarians adopted Slavic language and Slavic culture.

Fearing that the territory of the future Bulgaria would fall away from the Byzantine Empire, [[Byzantium]] opposed the Bulgarians. The clash between the Bulgarians and Byzantium ended in failure for the latter. Byzantine Emperor [[Constantine IV]] was forced to make peace with the Bulgarians and undertook to pay tribute to them (679 or 681).

The Treaty of Peace between the Bulgarians and Byzantium was Byzantium's recognition of the existence of a new state of Bulgaria. Asparuh's successor Terpel (701-718) took part in the struggle of the pretenders to the Byzantine throne, assisting [[Justinian II]]. Justinian granted him the title of Caesar. Bulgaria gained serious political importance in the Peninsula. The military clash between Byzantium and Bulgaria that followed soon led to the signing of a treaty (716) which put the border between the two countries and normalized the order of trade communications. Plyasca became the capital of Bulgaria.

=== Bulgarians during feudalism ===
The development of feudal relations in B. was reflected in the fact that the growing Bulgarian-Slavic nobility expanded their possessions at the expense of the communal land and subjugated the peasantry. The development of private property was ruining the community and weakening it. The individual economy of the community members strengthened. The class struggle between the enslaved peasantry and strengthening class of feudal lords aggravated. At the same time there was a struggle for power and influence within the ruling stratum of the forming feudal state. By the beginning of the 10th century, the formation of feudal relations was completed. By this time assimilation of Bulgarians by the Slavic population was basically over. The peasants were in varying degrees of dependence on the feudals: along with the enslaved peasants there were also legally free peasants. The class of feudal lords was not homogenous: its highest layer ("great boyars") was nearest to the kings; "petty boyars" had different service in the capital and in the province or lived in their own lands, going to war with their squadrons.

The development of feudal relations was accompanied by some economic growth. The geographical position of Bulgaria through which the trade routes passed that connected Western Kirov with the East and Russia with the Byzantine Empire contributed to the growth of the Bulgarian trade. The economic importance of Danube and Black Sea towns increased. Trade connections with Byzantium became stronger and the economic upturn contributed to the strengthening of Borisov.

The beginning of the 9th century was the period of the territorial expansion of Bulgaria. The Avars were defeated and their lands on the left bank of the Danube were annexed to Bulgaria. Bulgarian lands reached the Tissa (Tisza), the Carpathians and Dniester. Prince Krum (802-814) took Serdica (Sredets, later Sofia) in the south. Krum tried to strengthen the state internally as well by issuing a number of laws. Krum's successor Omortagh founded Preslav, the new capital of Bulgaria

The close contact with the neighboring countries, especially Byzantium, led to the cultural rapprochement of Bulgaria with them. It was expressed in the gradual spread of the Christianity in Blaise. However though there were a lot of Christians among the Slavic population the official religion was still pagan which was not suitable for the new feudal relations. Prince Boris of Bulgaria, who ruled from 852 to 888, was baptized by the Byzantine clergy in 804 or 805. The baptism caused a revolt of the boyars, which was brutally suppressed by Boris.

The arrival of the Greek clergy in Bulgaria caused a danger of ecclesiastical, political and cultural subjugation of Bulgaria by Byzantium. In this context Boris entered into negotiations for the recognition of the independence of the Bulgarian Church, but achieved his goal. Bulgaria remained subordinated to the Constantinople Patriarch.

The acceptance of Christianity sped up the restructuring of the legal order. A judicial people's law was compiled as a code for civil, family, and criminal law. In the second half of the 80s of the 9th century the pupils of Methodius Clement, Nahum, Aggslarius, who had been expelled from Moravia, arrived in Bulgaria They created schools and started translating books from the Greek into the Slavic language. The end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th centuries is the time of the cultural blossom of the ancient Byzantine Empire. Not only translated, but also original works appeared.

The economic growth and political and cultural development of Byzantium which made it a rival to Byzantium on the Balkan Peninsula led to the wars between Byzantium and Byzantium during the reign of Simeon (893-927) who called himself "king of the Bulgarians and the Greeks". The result of these wars was a significant expansion of the Bulgarian territory in the Balkan Peninsula but the ownership of the Bulgarian lands on the left bank of the Danube was largely captured by the Hungarians. The fight with Byzantium required a huge effort of the population which was devastated by the repeated moves of the Byzantine and Byzantine troops in the country. Feudal exploitation of peasants increased dramatically. The economic power and political role of individual feudal lords increased. All this has led to a sharp social and political crisis expressed in the anti-feudal peasants' movement which has taken the religious form of heresy the so called [[Bogomils|Bogomilism]] and in feudal conspiracies. The Bogomil movement was directed against the very foundations of the feudal system. The Bogomils opposed the dependence of peasants on feudal lords and feudal obligations. They resented the luxury of the secular and church nobility and the idleness of the monks. The dissemination of theophilism and the growth of Bogomilskie speeches indicate the rise of the anti-feudal peasant movement. Feudal conspiracies and attempts of feudal uprisings (928 and 930) resulted in the fall of the western part of Benin and the formation of the West Bulgarian Empire (909-1018).

The weakening of Bulgaria due to the feudal fragmentation caused the Byzantine Empire to attempt to subjugate Bulgaria. The Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phokas put Prince Svyatoslav in the fight with the Byzantine Empire. Svyatoslav attacked Dobrudzha (907 or 908) and took the town of Maly Preslav, where he decided to settle. Byzantium did not intend to assist in the spreading of the prince's power on the Danube lands and therefore Svyatoslav returned to his homeland. However soon (909 or 971) Svyatoslav returned to Bulgaria, where the population supported him in the fight against Byzantium. Svyatoslav recognized the Bulgarian King Boris II as his legitimate ruler. The second appearance of Svyatoslav led to a clash between the troops of the Kievan prince, who were helped by the Bulgarians, and the Byzantine troops. This struggle on the territory of Bulgaria ended in the defeat of Svyatoslav.

The Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes who led a campaign against Svyatoslav and his Bulgarian allies, assured that his task was to liberate Bulgaria but after Svyatoslav left he proclaimed the annexation of Bulgaria to the Byzantine Empire, destroyed the Bulgarian patriarchy, formed under Simeon, and took the last Bulgarian king to Constantinople. The East-Bulgarian kingdom fell (972).

The Western Bulgarian empire has existed 46 more years. During this period the most part of the Bulgarian lands has been released. Long period of wars with Byzantium proceeded, passing at first rather successfully for Bulgarian, but then the vice versa has appeared on the party of Byzantium. In 1014 Emperor Basil II, later nicknamed "Bulgar-slayer", defeated the Bulgarian army at Belasitsa. Military successes of the Byzantines and the struggle between the pretenders to the Bulgarian throne demoralized the Bulgarian feudal lords. When Basil II undertook a second march in 1018 the members of the Tsar's house and the boyars who had attached to them capitulated. Separate attempts by the Bulgarians to continue the struggle were unsuccessful.

=== Volga Riya under Byzantine rule (1018 - 1185) ===
Bulgaria was gradually transformed into a Byzantine province and the general Byzantine administrative system was extended to it. The West Bulgarian church was transformed into an archbishopric subject to the patriarch of Constantinople, archbishops were appointed from the Greeks. Thus, the Bulgarian church lost its national character. Byzantium tried to destroy the very name "Bulgaria" and usually called it Mezia.

Under Byzantine Domination the state of the Bulgarian population significantly worsened: the number and size of the taxes for the enslaved peasants increased dramatically, the land tax was levied in money, the state bought the products of the peasant labor at a compulsory price. The institution of irony (temporary grants of land to feudal lords) was widely spread. As rent could not become a hereditary property, Proniar tried to gain maximum profit during the period of land tenure and burdened peasants with work and levies. The abuses of the Byzantine authorities, levies in favor of the Greek clergy, and increasing taxes led to the ruin and enslavement of the peasants.

The severity of the feudal oppression caused a new growth of the Bogomil movement, which this time was directed mainly against foreign rule. The widespread dissemination of the doctrine of the Bogomils resulted in cruel persecutions and executions. The pillaging and ruin of Borisov led to the worsening of the fight against the Byzantine yoke. In 1040 in connection with the order to collect the land tax in monetary form unrest began in Borisov. The grandson of the Tsar Samuel Peter Deliang raised a rebellion which involved the Skopje region, the Drach region and Epirus. In 1072 the Bulgarians revolted under the leadership of the Skovlian boyar Georgin Vontokh having proclaimed Constantine Bodan king. This rebellion was also defeated.

The population of the eastern part of the country did not participate in the liberation of Borislavl as it was exposed to the attacks of the Pechenegian attackers. In 1048 the Byzantine Emperor consented to the settlement of 20 thousand Pechenegs in North Bosnia in order to make the position of the Bulgarians more difficult. 20 thousand Pechenegs horde. A year later several hundred thousand Pechenegs invaded the Danube region. These raids were repeated later. Since the end of the 50s of the 11th century the attacks of Uzes (Thors), Magyars and Polovetses began. In 1090-97 the crusaders who participated in the first crusade and ruined and plundered the citizens passed through Bulgaria The invasions of the nomads, crusaders and military service resulted in the reduction of the Bulgarian population.

Bulgaria was in constant political and cultural contact with Russia. Most of the Bulgarian uprisings against Byzantine rule usually coincided in time with the periods of Russia's clashes with Byzantium. The Byzantine Empire, exhausted by this, left the Danube region to its fate, which opened new opportunities for the Bulgarian people to fight for the liberation of Bulgaria

=== Liberation of Bulgaria from the Byzantine yoke. The Second Bulgarian Kingdom (1185 - 1396) ===
Around 1185 a rebellion started in Tarnovo, led by the local feudal lords, the Asen and Piotr brothers. The uprising spread throughout the Danube region and was supported by other feudal lords and the people, leading to the creation of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom. Major victories were won under the successor of Assn (1186-97) and Peter (1137) who were murdered by the boyars - their third brother Kaloyan who ruled from 1197 - 1207 when Bulgaria regained its independence and expanded its borders in the west. By the peace treaty of 1202 Byzantium recognized the independence of Bulgaria After the failure of the negotiations with Byzantium on the recognition of the royal title and the independence of the Bulgarian Church Kaloyan concluded a church union with the pope. The supremacy of the Pope over the Bulgarian Church was recognized, leaving it with internal autonomy; the Pope granted Kaloyan the title of King. The union had no serious repercussions. When Byzantium was captured by the Western Knights of the Crusades in 1204, Kaloyan defeated them in 1205 at Adrianople, which stopped their further advance across the Balkan Peninsula. Like his brothers, Kaloyan was assassinated by the boyars, who could not accept the loss of their former privileges and were in a conspiracy with the Byzantine court.

The Second Bulgarian Kingdom reached its greatest prosperity under Ivan Asen II (1218-41). He seized the throne with the help of a Russian military detachment. During this period the possessions of Bulgaria in the west were extended and Wallachia Minor (on the left bank of the Danube) was annexed, followed by Southern Bulgaria In 1230, after the defeat of the Despot of Epiros at the battle of Klscotnica, his possessions (Macedonia, Northern Greece, Albania) were annexed to Bulgaria Bulgaria became the largest power in the Balkan Peninsula.

But these successes were unstable due to the strengthening of feudal feuds. During this period the large landholdings of the feudal lords increased. They captured lands of Byzantine landowners and communal lands.

The process of development of feudal relations was expressed in strengthening of peasants' dependence and their exploitation. Most of the peasants were in the position of serfs.

Large landowners as a result of the development of trade with Italy were able to sell their bread. The privileged position of the large landowners

The privileged position of the large landowners strengthened the importance of the nobility. Already under Kaloyan the power of the state had to struggle against the desire of the feudal lords to isolate themselves. At the very beginning of the 13th century the governor Slav in the Rhodopes broke away from Bulgaria, and another big feudal Stroz not only declared himself independent but urged others to do the same which resulted in leaving a large part of Macedonia out of the king's power. There was a fierce struggle within the ruling class. Ivan Asesho II temporarily managed to subdue large feudal lords. He gave land and privileges to feudal lords, but at the same time he tried to strengthen the central state power. He created army, independent from feudal lords; administrative and tax system reminiscent of the Byzantine system was introduced on the king's lands. Privileges for Dubrovshchik merchants promoted the development of trade and growth of economic life of the country. But the development of foreign trade did not strengthen the internal unity of the country due to the lack of significant internal economic links. The process of feudal fragmentation intensified under the successors of Ivan Assn II. The feudal lords in various parts of Benin broke off with the Tsar, often allied with foreign enemies (Tatars, Hungarians) and together with them took part in wars against the Tsar's troops which weakened the Tsar's rule and contributed to the dissolution of the State.

Bogomilism and other forms of protest against feudal oppression were widespread among the serfs who were subjected to severe feudal exploitation. The plight of the peasantry, ruined by the feudal lords, worsened by the Tatar raids (1241 - 1300), caused a popular movement headed by the shepherd Ivaylo (1277). The big peasant detachments headed by him started a successful fight against the Tatars and drove them out of the country. Then the insurrectionists defeated the Byzantine troops which had been sent to install the candidate desirable for Byzantium as a Bulgarian king. The people sought not only liberation from external enemies, but also sought to destroy the oppression of the feudal lords. Ivaylo won the struggle against the king, seized the capital (Tarnovo) and took the royal throne through marriage with the widowed queen. Byzantium did not give up its attempts to place its appointee on the Bulgarian throne. Boyars saw in Ivaylo their enemy, but Ivaylo only threatened to deprive the boyars of their privileges without carrying out these threats. The peasantry did not get freedom and began to move away from Ivaylo. He turned to the Tatars for support in his fight against Byzantium. But Ivaylo was killed in the Tatar horde (1280).

From the second quarter of the 14th century, the Turks began attacking Bulgaria It was not able to withstand them because of the feudal fragmentation of the country. The population shied away from the military service. The personal friendship of the Tsar was insignificant. One of the most outstanding Bulgarian rulers of that time Pian Alexander (1331-71) tried to use diplomatic means to regulate his relations with the Turkish sultan.

At the end of the 14th century Balkan was a conglomeration of independent feudal states which were often hostile to each other. The population of Tŭrnovo kingdom heroically resisted the Turkish onslaught. However, after a long siege Tarnovo fell (1393). On the call of the Pope a militia of the Cross was gathered against the Turks headed by the Hungarian King Sigismund. The Crusaders were defeated by the army of Sultan Bayazid at Nicopolis (1390); after that the Turks conquered the kingdom of Bidipa of Ivan Sracimprus who had let the militia through his lands and the possessions of Ivanko in Dobrudja.

=== The Turkish Military-Feudalism of the late 14th-18th centuries ===
The Turkish conquerors divided the territory of B into three sancakas (provinces) - Vidin. Nikopol and Splistri. These sandjaks, as well as Thrace and Macedonia, were under the authority of the Beyler Bey, who had his residence in Sofia. The Turkish seizure of Bulgaria entailed important changes in Bulgaria The Bulgarian boyars, some of whom were exterminated, some of whom lost their privileges (with the exception of those who accepted the islam), were replaced by the Turkish feudal lords. Class oppression over the peasants was joined by national and religious oppression. Turks took the land into their own hands and converted the majority of Christian population into the masses with no rights and inferiority and called it "flock" - paradise. The Sultan was the supreme owner of the land which was given to Turkish feudals (snakhia) as a legal possession and some lands were allocated for mosques and other Muslim religious institutions (pakuf lands). Part of the land was occupied by Turkish settlers, peasants who settled mainly in fertile and strategically important areas. The enslaved Bulgarian peasants, in addition to the numerous state burdens (Harach, the land tax; Prospeich, the recruitment of boys 5 - 7 years old who later joined the Janissary units, etc.). ) The majority of peasants were considered hereditary. Most of the peasants were considered hereditary holders of the Spahiye land. Among the rayis there were groups exempt from some taxes but obliged to perform special functions such as serving in the army, military-polyceum service in the mountain passages, etc.

The establishment of the military-feudal system of the Ottoman Empire led to the economic decline of Borisov and the extreme worsening of the situation of its population. The expulsion of Bulgarians from some cities contributed to the decline of the city life. During the first centuries of the Turkish rule the craft and commerce were under the control of other nationalities, mainly Greeks. The foreigners (Venetians, Genoese, Dubrovcians) were in charge of the foreign trade. The national and religious oppression of the Turks, expressed in various legal and domestic restrictions on Christians, was extremely severe.

The Bulgarian national church was destroyed and Bulgaria was subordinated to the Constantinople Patriarchate, which ensured Greek domination in the church and opened the way for the elimination of Bulgarians. However many Bulgarian monasteries continued to be the keepers of national culture; in their activity they relied on the connections and material support of the Russian church. For the Bulgarian people Russia, the great Slavic power, was a natural protector, and all hopes for liberation from the Turkish yoke were connected with expectation of help from the Russian state. But at that time Rus' was not yet in a position to provide such assistance. At the very beginning of the 15th century the surviving representatives of the former Bulgarian Tsarist clans had risen in the area bordering the Serbian lands (1403- 05), but this attempt to throw off the Turkish dominion was a failure. Ten years later there was a second attempt to revolt against the Turks, also unsuccessful.

The decline of the Ottoman Empire began at the end of the 16th century. The population's struggles, arbitrariness of the spahns, officials' abuses and forcible Turkization of the population intensified in the decaying Empire. The people's indignation and desire to repudiate the oppressors was growing. The attempts to create alliances of European powers against Turkey and its failure in wars promoted the connection of Bulgarians with the neighboring countries. The economic relationship with Dubrovnik which was a trade mediator between Bulgaria and other countries increased the importance of the Dubrovnik merchants. The merchant George was one of the leaders of the revolt in Bulgaria In 1597 the Bulgarians secured the promise of help from the Austrian Emperor. The uprising that started in 1598 covered the area of Tirpovo. Badly organized and poorly armed insurgents hoped for foreign help. But the Austrian help did not come and the uprising was crushed. Some leaders and participants of the rebellion fled to the Russian state. As the European coalition with the participation of Russia and Austro-Turkish war was created in Tarnovo in 1686 a new rebellion started which was headed by Rostislav Sratzmirovna who was pretending to be a descendant of the old dynasty of Indian kings and had contacts with Russian patriarch Joachim.

The revolt failed. Almost all the Bulgarians who had fortified themselves in Tarnovo were slaughtered. Only with great difficulty did Rostislav and his associates manage to make their way to Russia. The movement of this small detachment caused an uproar in Sredne, but the city's residents, surrounded by Turks, were also defeated. After that, in 1688, a rebellion broke out in Chin-Rovets, the center of mining, but it was also suppressed. Since that time separate rebellions and partisan actions in different regions of Bulgaria have not stopped.

The rise of Kaisaisalism in Bulgaria. The formation of Bulgarian National Revolution. The struggle of the Bulgarian people against the Turkish yoke was successful. From the second half of the 18th century in the Ottoman Empire began the dissolution of the feudal and the development of capitalist relations. Natural rent began to turn into monetary rent. The exploitation of peasants intensified. The process of differentiation of the peasantry, which was accompanied by the emergence of land owners from the Bulgarians. This process intensified in the 19th century, when the peasantry received the official right to own land.

The urban population changed due to the influx there of the impoverished part of the Bulgarian population (especially in the first quarter of the 19th century), the crafts and trade developed. The shop organizations were becoming Bulgarian. The rank-and-file artisans, with the development of capitalist relations, became increasingly dependent on the masters. A great role in the economic development of Bulgaria was played by the Kuchuk

Kainarji Peace Treaty of 1774 which opened the straits and gave Russian merchants the freedom of trade in the Turkish possessions. Domestic trade increased which was reflected in the growth of local fairs.

In the process of the development of capitalism the Bulgarian nation was being formed. The social composition of the population was changing. Some of the Bulgarian traders and moneylenders became the de facto owners of the large land holdings. From this environment came cattle traders and tax payers who enjoyed special privileges. This group (the so-called Chor-Bajis) was in close connection with the Turkish administration and was opposed to the liberation struggle because of their economic interests. The other part of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie, mixed economically, aspiring to the development of industry, was gravitating to the military-feudal Turkish oppression. Political disenfranchisement and a desire for domination motivated the young Bulgarian bourgeoisie to strive to fight the Turkish yoke.

The awakening of national consciousness in the 18th century was reflected in the "History of Slav-Bulgarian" by Paisius of Hilsandar (1762). The work opposed the Hellenistic efforts of the Greek clergy and merchants to Hellenize the Bulgarians and called for the preservation of the Bulgarian language and national development. Gradually the Bulgarian monastic and Greek secular schools have been replaced by the national secular school.

External events further strengthened this process. The French bourgeois revolution at the end of the 18th century had its repercussions in Bulgaria. The Serbian and Greek national-liberation rebellions at the beginning of the 19th century in which the Bulgarians took part had a great influence on the course of the liberation struggle in Bulgaria. The Russian-Turkish wars which took place on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina between the 18th and 19th Centuries had the Bulgarian people's hope for the speedy liberation. When the Russian army carried out military actions on the territory of Borisov the Bulgarians would form detachments which would fight together with the Russian troops. So, during the Russian-Turkish war in 1828-29 the Bulgarian officer Georgi Mamarchev created a volunteer Bulgarian detachment which operated jointly with the Russian troops. During the Crimean War 1853 - 56 Nikolai Filipovsky craftsman was preparing a revolt in Tarnovo, and Bulgarian revolutionary G. Vakovsky with his collected detachment was preparing to join the Russian army. The Bulgarian revolutionary G. Vakovsky prepared to join the Russian army. After the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the Bulgarian lands, many Bulgarians moved to Russia as intermediaries between their new homeland and their brothers who had remained in their homeland. Bulgarian merchants have long settled in Odessa and Moscow. During the Crimean War in Odessa "Bulgarian Superiority" was established, which assisted the Russian troops in Bulgaria The influence of the Russian culture on Bulgaria was extremely great. Russian books were widely distributed in Bulgaria Many Bulgarians received education in Russia. V. Anilov, a prominent figure in the field of public education, 11. Gorov, a prominent philologist and public figure, M. Drinov, the founder of the Bulgarian historical science, N. Bonchev, a literary critic, L. Karavelov, a bourgeois democrat, H. Botev, an outstanding poet and revolutionary and hundreds of other makers of the national liberation period in Bulgaria have studied in Russia. Russian revolutionary and democratic thought had an enormous influence on the formation of the outlook of Botev and others.

The Paris Peace Treaty of 1850, which ended the Crimean War, opened a free access of European goods to Turkey and caused a crisis of local crafts and trade, the mass ruin of traders. Representatives of the big bourgeoisie, who appropriated a part of foreign trade in Turkey, were inclined to support the existence of the Ottoman Empire. Part of the bourgeoisie, the victims of the crisis and bankrupt artisans were in a difficult situation, out of which could only give the destruction of the Turkish domination and the dissolution of the feudal system. The sharp aggravation of social and national conflicts made the Sultan in 1858 to issue a second land law (in 1834 it was declared the destruction of the Timariot system), which established the destruction of Snahiye land tenure and providing peasants with land for a high ransom. This law, as well as the formal recognition of the equality of religions and nationalities of the empire, had no practical significance. However, albeit slowly, the development of capitalism also captured the village. Attempts to replace in-kind taxes with money and the redemption of land put the peasants in the hands of moneylenders. The peasantry was going bankrupt.

=== Liberation of Bulgaria from the Byzantine yoke ===
The development of capitalist relations in Bulgaria strengthened the growth of the national liberation struggle. The leadership at this stage belonged to the bourgeoisie. Since the end of the 30s of the 19th century, the struggle for the national church began, especially after the Crimean War. In 1860 Bulgaria broke with the Patriarchate of Constantinople which did not want to recognize the independence of the Bulgarians. In 1870 the Sultan issued a law on the Bulgarian Exarchate, which established an independent Bulgarian Church under the administration of the Exarch, elected by the Bulgarian bishops.

The first representative of the democratic circles (peasants and artisans) in the Bulgarian national-liberation movement was the outstanding Bulgarian revolutionary and publicist Vakovsky. He was looking for ways of direct armed fight against the Turkish oppressors, formed a detachment in Serbia and intended to enter Bulgaria and raise a revolt. However, the implementation of the plan was prevented by the military clash between the Serbs and the Turks in Belgrade and the ensuing bombing of Belgrade by the Turks which caused the intervention of European diplomacy (1862). After a few years in Bucharest a "Secret Conspiracy Committee" was formed to prepare the revolt in Bulgaria However, the representatives of the big bourgeoisie in the committee prevailed over the radical elements. They came up with the project of transforming Turkey on the dualistic basis according to the Austro-Hungarian model, with granting Bulgaria autonomy and crowning the Sultan as the King of Bulgaria At the end of the same year (1866) Vakovsky created a secret organization in Bucharest to prepare the revolt in Bulgaria but due to his death (1867) the army did not start to act.

The creator of a major revolutionary-liberation organization was V. Levski. A democrat and republican, an ardent enemy of Chorbajistn, he sought to free Bulgaria poliyically and economically. Levski began extensive activities to create a branched network of revolutionary committees in Bulgaria. The general meeting of the committees adopted the program and the charter (1872). Created Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee (Bucharest Committee) was heterogeneous in composition. The revolutionary-democratic wing led by Levski sought to eliminate the Turkish feudal domination by revolutionary means. The radical-bourgeois wing, led by L. Karavelov, found the kooks and contributed to the softening of some points of the program. Levski developed a wide organizational activity in Bulgaria, and he was arrested and executed (1878).

After the death of Levsky, the organization continued its activities in a significantly narrowed scope. In 1874 a new committee was elected, which included Karavelov and a prominent poet and revolutionary H. Botev. Karavelov, who had studied in Russia, was familiar with the Russian revolutionary and democratic thought, but as a representative of the bourgeois circles, he could not perceive its revolutionary essence. Botev's views were formed under the direct influence of the works of Chernyshevsky, Herzen, Pisarev and other Russian revolutionary democrats; he became the leader of the revolutionary wing of the Committee. Disagreements between representatives of two currents led to concentration of actual leadership of the Committee in the hands of Botev. A general meeting of the organization elected a new committee headed by Botev (1875) and decided to prepare an uprising, the success of which was expected because of the uprising in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A revolutionary situation was developing in Bulgaria. The committee sent the Bulgarian uprising leaders there. However, the uprising was poorly prepared; it began on September 10. 1875 in Stara Eagora but was quickly suppressed.

Failure led to disagreements in the Committee, and Botev resigned from its membership. A group of revolutionaries, disappointed in the actions of the Bucharest Committee, gathered soon in Gurgev and formed a new Central Committee, assigning a new revolt for the spring of 1876. The country was divided into districts to which leaders were sent. The date of the uprising was fixed (May 1), but the rebellion had to be started before the deadline (April 20) because of the Turkish government's denunciation. The districts rose to struggle not at the same time. The strongest rebellion was in Panagyurpsha District where the leader of the rebels was G. Vankovskiy. was the leader of the rebels. A wide range of peasants, artisans, petty bourgeoisie and petty bourgeois intelligentsia took part in the uprising. The uprising plan called for the arrival of several detachments (Chet) from Romania. One of the detachments, which departed by steamer, was commanded by X. Botev. Soon after the landing the detachment met with the Turks. In the battle on May 20, 1876 Botev was killed and the detachment was destroyed by the Turks. Another detachment arriving from Romania was also destroyed. The poorly prepared, poorly armed rebellion was defeated. However, the defeat of the uprising did not break the determination of the Bulgarian patriots to fight for the liberation of the country. Some of them joined the Serbian forces fighting against the Turkish yoke. The brutal suppression of the revolt, accompanied with mass executions caused wide public response abroad. In Russia and in many other countries there were outraged protests against the atrocities of the Turkish government and vigorous demands for the national liberation of the Bulgarians. The English government from the very beginning of the national liberation movement of the Balkan Slavs in 1875-76 recommended to the Turkish government to drown the uprising in blood, and subsequently it protected the Turkish murderers and claimed that the reports of atrocities were exaggerated. This way it wanted to hide its participation in the massacre.

The events of April - May 1876 in Bulgaria became a subject of diplomacy, negotiations between Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany. On April 12 ay. On April 12, 1877 Russia declared a war on Turkey. The Russian troops in Bulgaria caused a strong upsurge of the national liberation struggle of the Bulgarians. To support the Russian troops the Bulgarians created militia detachments which joined the Russian troops and took part in fights for the liberation of their country.

The heroic struggle of the Russian troops which was unanimously supported by the majority of the Bulgarian people resulted in the defeat of the Turkish troops in Bulgaria and the return of Bulgaria from the yoke of the Turks. On March 3 1878 the Treaty of Peace was signed in San Stefano which recognized the independence of Bulgaria. Turkey also recognized the borders of the new country. However, England, Austria-Hungary and Germany were against the formation of an independent state. At their insistence and in 1878 Verlennes convened a Congress to revise the Treaty of Stéphane. Although Russia was the victor in the war that had just ended, other powers that had not taken part in the war took the lead at the Congress. This resulted in the suppression of the legitimate interests of the Bulgarian people. The territory of Bulgaria, established by the Sai-Stefai Treaty, was divided into three parts. From North Bulgaria the vassal, in relation to the Turks, Bulgarian princedom was created. An autonomous province - Voet - was created from the Southern Balkans as a part of the Turkish Empire. Rumelin, headed by the Christian Governor General appointed by the Turkish Government, Macedonia and Thrace were left under the Turkish authority. The splitting up of Bulgaria was caused by the fears of the Western European powers that the creation of a large and strong Slavic state in Bulgaria would be a barrier to their expansionist aspirations and strengthen Russia's influence on Bulgaria. Russia could not oppose the three major powers of the time.

=== Bulgaria as a Bourgeois State. Bulgaria 1878 - 1900 ===
Russia provided great assistance to the newly created Bulgarian state. Under the guidance of Russian representatives in the Bulgarian principality a number of measures for its civil and military organization were taken. The army which would be able to defend the country's integrity and independence was founded in V. Russia provided the new Bulgarian army with arms and ammunition, gave Bulgaria the Danube fleet which it had stolen from the Turks during the war and handed over 20 000 horses, helped in the selection and training of officers and non-commissioned officers.

On 10 Feb. On 10 February 1879 the Constituent Assembly was convened in Tarnovo. The Constituent Assembly adopted the constitution, which was later called the Tarnovo

Tarnovo. The Tarnovo Constitution stipulated universal suffrage, a unicameral system, limited the prince's authority and established the responsibility of ministers before the National Assembly. The Constituent Assembly, in which the Liberals were represented, accepted the relatively progressive bourgeois Tyrnova Constitution because of the changes in the balance of class forces in the country. As a result of the Russian-Turkish war together with the Turkish troops the Turkish landlords fled from Bulgaria, which facilitated the destruction of the Turkish feudal regime and V. The Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 had played a great progressive role in the historical development of Benin as it resulted in the liberation from the national enslavement and oppression of feudalism. The liberation of V. created conditions for faster capitalistic development. The land which was formerly owned by the Turkish feudal lords was handed over to the Bulgarian peasants. The development of tovar-monetary relations, debts to the Rostov kings, heavy taxes led to the mass ruin of the peasant households. A small group of kulaks, moneylenders and traders concentrated considerable funds in their hands. The stratification of the peasantry was growing. Capitalism was strengthening in V. At the same time V. became more and more an arena of competition between Western European countries that tried to turn V. into their agrarian and raw materials appendage.

The first Prince of the newly created Bulgarian principality from 1879 was the German Prince Alexander Batenberg. Being an extreme reactionary Prince Alexander Battenberg started a struggle with liberals and in May 1881 he abolished the Constitution establishing a regime of "extraordinary powers". Alexander Vittenberg acted mainly in the interests of Germany and Austria-Hungary, turning V. In the Balkans he turned it into a bastion of Austro-German influence. The anti-russian orientation of the Prince, supported by England, was reflected in the choice of the direction of the railway construction in Bulgaria It was decided to build the Tzarnbrod-Sofia-Vakarel railroad which would connect Bulgaria with Germany via Budapest-Becu on one side and Constantinople on the other, instead of the railroad which was to be used for the connection with Russia. Seeking support against the Russian influence, the Prince even made a temporary agreement with the liberals and in 1883 revolted the Constitution.

Since September 1885 as a result of the uprising Vojt. Rumelnia (South Bulgaria) was joined to the Principality of Bulgaria. Serbia, which was under the influence of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, declared war on V. The war ended with a quick victory of the inspired Bulgarian army which secured the borders of the reunified Bulgarian principality according to the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1886. During the same period Balkan Albania had to cede two small districts (Tamrush and Kardzhali) on its southern border to Turkey which in return Turkey recognised the unification of Eastern Bulgaria with Balkan.

In August 1886 a palace coup took place in Bulgaria Alexander Battenberg was deposed. However, the Board of Regents, instigated by the Western European capitalist circles, pursued a hostile policy against Russia, which led to a rupture in diplomatic relations between Russia and V. (November 8, 1886). After long negotiations, thanks to the machinations of Austro-German diplomacy the German prince was put on the Bulgarian throne.

German Prince Ferdinand Koburgsky, an Austrian army officer (July 7, 1887), was placed on the Bulgarian throne. Russia did not recognize the new prince. At that time the de facto ruler in the country was Istanbul (first the regent, and since 1887 the head of government), who represented the circles of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie oriented towards Austria-Hungary and cruelly persecuted the Russian supporters. The country was established a political dictatorship and the foreign (mainly Austrian) capital was widely accessible which caused discontent of Bulgarian craftsmen and the nascent industrial bourgeoisie.

In 1898 the Tarnovo constitution was amended in the direction of expanding the power of the Prince. Using the dissatisfaction in the country with the policy of Istanbul, Ferdinand gave him his resignation in 1894. Having strengthened its position in the country, Ferdinand decided to defuse tense relations with Russia. In order to gain the sympathy of the Russian court, Ferdinand, himself a Catholic, converted his son Boris to Orthodoxy by inviting him to become godfather of Tsar Nicholas II. The active policy in the Far East and the aggravation of relations with Britain prompted the tsar's government to temporarily soften relations with Austria-Hungary and Germany. In 1895 diplomacy, relations between Bulgaria and Russia were restored.

From the end of the 19th century, capitalist production rapidly developed in Bulgaria In 1887 there were only 35 large industrial enterprises, but in 1901 there were about 200 of them. The policy of the governing authorities was determined by the interests of the big bourgeoisie. From 1894, a number of laws on the protection of industrial shares, either by financing it or by changing customs tariffs, were passed. Foreign monopolists and bourgeoisie, who were managing the country, placed the sheaves of capital in the light industry, from which they quickly derived profits because of the relatively faster circuit of capital and this industry, and the development of capitalism was accompanied by the ruin of small producers, the growth of the proletariat. In 1893 the number of independent owners decreased by 21.4% as compared with 1888, while the number of servants increased by 33.5%. In 1898 in Bulgaria there were already about 300 thousand workers and commercial and industrial employees.

=== Start of the Imperialist Period ===
In 1900-14, the period of imperialism was marked for Bulgaria, as well as for all capitalist countries, by the aggravation of the contradictions inherent in capitalism. (The growth of the working class and its class consciousness in the country increased the class struggle.

In 1891, two currents, the Marxist party led by Blagoev and the opportunist one (so called "soshnsti"), were created in the party. Later, under the influence of the works of Lenin and Lenin's "Iskra", a revolutionary wing strengthened in the ranks of this party. In 1903, as a result of a long and persistent struggle, the party split into "tesins" or "close" Socialists and "broad" Socialists. The "broad" Socialists stood for wide access to the Party, which inevitably led to organizational dissoluteness and the contamination of the Party by petty-bourgeois elements. The "Teshchyaks" were for the close, united ranks of the workers' party as the vanguard of the Bulgarian proletariat fighting against capitalist oppression and for socialism.

In 1899 a peasant organization, the People's Farmers' Union, was established in Bulgaria

The revolution of 1905-07 in Russia was very well responded to by Bulgaria. A wave of strikes spread all over the country, one of the results of which was the growth of trade unions (about one thousand workers were organized into trade unions in Minsk, in 1911 over 30 thousand). In October 1908 the Rebellion renounced vassal dependence to Turkey and declared the country fully independent. Ferdinand took the title of King. The Balkan Union was established in 1912, which included Turkey, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro. The goal of the Alliance was to fight against the mutual enemy Turkey which had many Bulgarians, Serbs, Macedonians and Greeks under its rule. In October 1912 the countries of the Balkan Union started the war against Turkey. At that time Bulgaria was the strongest country in the Balkans. It had an army of over 400,000 men. Turkey was quickly defeated during the floods and had to ask for peace. On 30 May 1913 a peace treaty was signed in London. By the Treaty Turkey was deprived of its possessions in the Balkans. However, after the successful end of the First Balkan War, which was objectively of a liberating nature, the war between the recent allies over the division of the liberated territory soon broke out. The Austro-German diplomacy, interested in the discord between the Balkan allies, played a big role in unleashing the war. By order of Ferdinand, encouraged by Austria-Hungary and Germany and supported by the Bulgarian bourgeoisie, on June 29 1913 the Bulgarian army attacked Serbia and Greece. Soon Romania and Turkey opposed Bulgaria and the Bulgarian army was defeated. Bulgaria was forced to give South Dobrogea to Romania, and Macedonia, which Bulgaria was claiming, was divided between Serbia and Greece; only a small piece of Macedonia went to Bulgaria. According to the Treaty of Constantinople signed on September 29. 1913 Bulgaria received a part of Western Thrace which was its exit to the Aegean Sea but had to give it to Turkey the town of Adrianople with the adjoining territory.

During the Second Balkan War (July 1913) came to power a pro-German government of "Liberal Concentration" Raslan, completely focused on Germany and Austria-Hungary. The economic and political influence of the latter on Bulgaria increased. On July 12, 1914 the Bulgarians received a loan from Germany which strengthened the submission of the Bulgarians economy to German imperialism.

=== Bulgaria during the [[First World War]] ===
At the beginning of World War I the government of P. declared its neutrality. A struggle was going on in stormy:, circles over the issue of the foreign policy orientation of the V. The Government conducted secret negotiations with both warring parties. On Sept. On September 15, 1915 secret treaties (alliance treaty and military convention) were signed between Bulgaria and Germany and Austria-Hungary promising Macedonia and part of Seroin. On the same day Turkey signed a treaty with Bulgaria on the transfer of Bulgaria territory along the right and left banks of the Marina River to Dedeagach. Soon after these deals, despite Russia's energetic efforts to prevent Bulgaria from entering into the war, on October 14, 1915 Bulgaria attacked the French army in Turkey. On October 14, 1915 Bulgaria attacked Serbia and entered the war on the side of the Austro-German bloc. By the end of 1915, Bulgarian troops occupied Macedonia.

By the end of 1915 Bulgarian troops occupied Macedonia and part of Serbia. In August 1916, together with Germany and Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria attacked Romania and occupied the southern part of Dobrogea. During the protracted war the living standards of the workers were decreasing, the national economy was collapsing. The popularity of the party of "tesniacs", "internationalists in action", was growing. From the very beginning, the "tesniacs" opposed Bulgaria's participation in the imperialist war. Participation in the war led to a sharp deterioration of the economic situation of Bulgaria.

The Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia had a tremendous impact on Bulgaria. The activity of the "tesnyakovs" intensified, calling on the Bulgarian workers to follow the example of the Russian proletariat, unrest began in the rear and ferment among the soldiers at the front. In the meantime the front on the Balkans still held, however, the Bulgarian army was no longer capable of serious combat operations. Domestic and foreign political difficulties were steadily increasing. The peace treaty with Romania which was signed in May 1918 did not help to alleviate them. According to the treaty South Dobrogea was returned to Bulgaria

On 15 September 1918 French, British, Serbian and Greek armies launched an offensive against the Bulgarian army in Macedonia. The front line was broken in the area of Dobropolo. The retreating Bulgarians rebelled, defeated the headquarters in Kustendil; on September 27 they occupied Radomir and proclaimed the Republic. On 29 September soldiers captured the village of Vladaia (near Sofia) and moved on Sofia. The Bulgarian government, with the help of U.S. diplomats, hastened to conclude an armistice on 29 September. 1918 in Thessaloniki. The Soldier's Revolt (so-called Vladaiskos) was suppressed with the help of German troops. However, Ferdinand was forced to abdicate the throne (October 3, 1918), giving it to his son Boris, and fled.

After the armistice the Anglo-French troops occupied Bulgaria and assisted the Bulgarian bourgeoisie in its struggle against the revolutionary movement. Bondage peace was imposed on Bulgaria Under the Treaty of Neuilly of 1919 Bulgaria was cut off from the Aegean Sea. South Dobrogea was again given to Romania and several smaller regions of Balkan were ceded to Yugoslavia which was created after the war. Bulgaria was only allowed to maintain an army of 20,000 men and was forbidden to have an air fleet. Moreover, it was obliged to pay reparations of 2,250 million gold francs. The whole economic and financial life of Bulgaria was placed under the control of the imperialist International Reparation Commission. The consequence of the war was an extreme worsening of the situation of the working masses.

The Party of Tsenyak, which was one of the founders of the Communist International, transformed into the Communist Party B in May 1919. The Party, however, did not immediately free itself from the mistakes peculiar to the Tsenyaks, in particular - from underestimation of the revolutionary possibilities of the peasantry. In the summer and autumn of 1919 the Bulgarian proletariat, under the leadership of the Communist Party, rose in a strike struggle, unprecedented in its magnitude in the history of Bulgaria The culmination of this struggle was a strike of railway workers and civil servants in December 1919, suppressed in February 1920 by the coalition government of [[Stamboliysky]].

On March 28, 1920 elections to the National Assembly were held. The Agrarian Union received 38% of the votes.

On March 28, 1920, elections to the People's Assembly were held, the Agrarian Union received 38% of the votes and formed a one-party cabinet headed by the Union leader, Stamboliiski. Under pressure from the peasantry, the Stamboliiski Government passed laws on the implementation of many reforms which were essentially half-hearted: the Act on Agrarian Reform under which surplus land over 30 ha was alienated to the State Land Fund to be given to landless and small peasants (by early 1923 the number of landless and midget farms was approx. At the beginning of 1923 the number of landless and dwarf peasants constituted approx. 27-28% and the number of peasant farms cultivating up to 5 ha was not less than 60%), the law on progressive income tax etc. These measures were taken by the Stamboliiski government without necessary resolution and consistency, but partially affected the interests of the Bulgarian big bourgeoisie and foreign capital. The working class and the Communist Party demanded decisive measures. The Stamboliiski Government, fearing the increasing influence of the Communists, persecuted the Communist Party, which received 20.2% of the vote in the elections of 1920, and pursued a policy of opposing the peasantry to the proletariat. Frightened by the growth of democratic forces and the strengthening of the autonomy of the Communist Party, the Bulgarian bourgeoisie, with the support of foreign capital that ruled in Bulgaria, began creating secret fascist organizations ("People's conspiracy" and others).

On June 9, 1923, a fascist coup was carried out. Stamboliysky's government was overthrown and Stamboliysky himself was killed. A fascist clique headed by Dankov, encouraged by international reaction, seized power. The Communist Party adopted an erroneous position of neutrality toward the coup. In September 1923 the monarcho-fascist government of Dankov launched an open attack on the working class and the Communist Party. An anti-fascist uprising began in the country. The revolt covered almost the whole country. In some areas the rebels seized power (Bratz District, Razlog, etc.). A military revolutionary committee headed by G. M. Dimitrov and V. P. Kolaroviš was established to lead the uprising by the Communist Party of Bulgaria P. Kolaroviš. However, the Government, with the support of international reaction, managed to defeat the rebel forces. The workers and peasants were brutally massacred by fascist gangs. The Communist Party and all progressive democratic organizations were banned. Despite the unsuccessful outcome the September Uprising played a major role in the growth of class consciousness of the proletariat and peasantry and the strengthening of the Communist Party, accelerating the process of its Bolshevization.

=== Bulgaria in 1924-39 ===
Dankov's government in 1924 outlawed the Communist Party. After the explosion in the Cathedral of St. Sophia (1925) Dankov's fascist clique increased unprecedented persecution of communists and workers in an attempt to physically destroy all the progressive forces of the Bulgarian people.

In January 1926 the Dankov government that was finally compromised by the brutal repressions gave way to the Lapchev government which, continuing its former fascist policy, was obliged to give the appearance of weakening the dictatorship. The working class in Bulgaria took advantage of some legal possibilities: the trade unions were revived, in 1927 the workers' party was established under the leadership of the illegal Communist Party and the union of the working youth. In 1929 the world economic crisis began and one of the consequences was worsening of the imperialist countries' fight for strengthening and expanding their positions in Bulgaria Along with this, a sharp worsening of the working class position followed as a result of the economic crisis. The strike movement became widespread (especially in 1931).

In June 1931, elections were held in Bulgaria As a result, the Liacev government was replaced by the government of the so-called People's Bloc, which included representatives of the bourgeois opposition (including the Agricultural Union. The government of the People's Bloc, which included representatives of the bourgeois opposition (including the Farmers' Union). This government, under the guise of leftist phrases, continued its terror against the Communists and all the democratic elements. At the same time, discord within the ruling circles of Bulgaria increased, reflecting the tension of the domestic situation and the fragility of the existing regime. In this environment, a coup d'état took place on 19 May.

The new Kimon Georgiev's government imposed a military regime and suppressed all political parties.

Taking into consideration the increasing international prestige of the USSR, the traditional sympathy of the Bulgarian people to Russia and the danger of German aggression which increased with the installation of the Hitler dictatorship in Germany in 1933 the government of K. Georgiev established diplomatic relations with the USSR on 23 July 1934. 15

1935 Tsar Boris, relying on the revanchist pro-German elements, removed the government of Georgiev from power. Subsequent governments have pursued a policy of increased fascization of the country, focusing entirely on Hitler's Germany. This policy was strongly opposed by the popular masses led by the Communists. In 1938 the Bulgarian Communist Party and the Labor Party merged into the Labor Party, which was called the Bulgarian Labor Party, and after September 9, 1944 - the BPP. 1944 - BRP (Communists).

On the eve of the Second World War the influence of Germany on Bulgaria became much stronger. In 1939 Germany had a 2/3 share of German foreign-trade turnover. A significant part of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie was completely dependent on the German capital. Hitler's diplomacy played on the chauvinistic mood of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie (now the slogan of revision of borders of Bulgaria) and stopped the monarch-fascist clique of Bulgaria as a tool of German imperialist policy.

=== Bulgaria during the Second World War ===
At the beginning of the Second World War the Bulgarian government declared its neutrality, but this statement, as well as the signing in January 1940 of the Treaty of Trade and Navigation with the USSR, were only a cover for cooperation with Nazi Germany. In September 1940 a treaty was made between Bulgaria and Rumania by which Bulgaria received southern Cobrudmenea. On 1 March 1941 the Prime Minister Filov in Vienna signed the Memorandum of Accession of Bulgaria to the Berlin Pact and gave his consent to the invasion of German fascist troops in Bulgaria The invaders used the territory of Bulgaria to attack Greece and Yugoslavia on March 2, 1941 and the ruling circles of which opened the door to Hitler. Thus, the ruling monarch-fascist clique of Bulgaria headed by Tsar Boris, expressing the interests of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie associated with German capital, dragged Bulgaria into an alliance with the fascist powers. The traditional sympathies and the love of the Bulgarian people for the brotherly Russian people did not allow this clique to openly declare war on the USSR. Nevertheless Bulgaria was turned into a bridgehead.

Nevertheless Bulgaria was turned into a bridgehead to fight against the Soviet Union and in fact helped Germany which attacked the USSR on June 22, 1941. By replacing the German occupation units in Macedonia, the Serbian Pomerania and West Thrace the Bulgarian army liberated them to fight on other fronts, and in particular against the Soviet Union. The Bulgarian ports (Varna, Burgas, Ruso) were turned into bases of Hitler's naval forces on the Black Sea and all air and railroads of Bulgaria were in Hitler's hands. On November 25, 1941 the monarcho-fascist rulers of Bulgaria joined the "Leninist-Internationalist Pact".

The Bulgarian people have never put up with the criminal anti-people policy of the fascist rulers. The anti-fascist struggle became particularly widespread after the beginning of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union. Under the leadership of the Communist Party, the struggle took armed forms, and guerrilla groups led by the Communists were created. Hitlerites with the help of their Bulgarian accomplices robbed the country clean. (The dissatisfaction of the Bulgarian people with the treacherous policy of the government grew day by day. The monarcho-fascist government tried to suppress the anti-fascist patriotic movement in the country by means of brutal repressions. During the war the fascist military field courts issued 1,590 death sentences. About 40,000 people were thrown into prisons and concentration camps. About 40,000 people were thrown into prisons and concentration camps.

On the initiative of [[Georgi Dimitrov|G. M. Dimitrov]] under the guidance of the Communist Party in 1942 the Fatherland Front (PF) was formed, uniting the anti-fascist forces. On July 17, 1942 the illegal radio station "Hristo Potev" publicized the program of the Fatherland Front drawn up by G. M. Dimitrov, which had the following goals: to break the alliance with Hitler's Iermais and other powers of the Ottoman Empire, to cleanse the Bulgarian land from German fascist troops and Gestapo bandits and ensure cooperation between Bulgaria and the Soviet Union. The home front demanded immediate withdrawal of the Bulgarian troops from the regions they occupied and a friendly agreement with the neighboring nations. The immediate goal of the anti-fascist movement was the overthrow of the fascist regime in the country and the establishment of a people's democratic government. Taking into account the mood of the masses, part of the Land Union, part of the Social Democrats, the Union "Zveno" (representing the anti-German officers and part of the anti-German bourgeoisie), individual representatives of the anti-fascist bourgeois intellectuals who did not belong to political parties agreed with this program and joined the Fatherland Front headed by the Communist Party. The establishment of the Fatherland Front and wide popularization of its program expanded the anti-fascist struggle of the masses. Anti-Hitlerite sabotage intensified, sabotage of factories and railroads became more frequent. Peasants began to refuse to give grain and other products, they beat and expelled from the villages commissions and agents for grain collection. The activity of the Communist-led Home Front and the growth of its influence on the masses contributed greatly to the fact that the Bulgarian government did not dare to send the Bulgarian troops against the Soviet Army.

After the defeat of the Nazi forces at Stalingrad, Tsar Boris, trying to find a way out of the impasse, began to seek contact with the Anglo-American circles. This aroused the suspicions of Hitler and his hordes. Boris was summoned to Hitler's headquarters for explanations. On his way to Sofia he died suddenly on August 28, 1943. Because of the infancy of Boris's heir, the last Bulgarian Tsar Simeon II (1943-40), a regency council was created consisting of Prince Kirill, Bogdan Filov and General Llichov, who continued the same anti-national, treasonous policies as Tsar Boris.

From the beginning of 1943, the Communist-led partisan movement covered the whole country. In the summer of 1944 the partisan detachments already numbered more than 40 thousand fighters and were widely supported by the country's population. Some partisan brigades numbered as many as 1000 or more men; they fought openly with gendarmerie and regular troops. To make the management of guerrilla warfare easier, the U.S. was divided into 12 military-operational zones, where military-operational headquarters with their subordinated units and brigades were formed. All partisan detachments of Bulgaria were part of a single national liberation rebel army headed by the supreme headquarters. Apart from partisan detachments auxiliary combat groups operated almost in all settlements of the country. According to the Red Army command, during the first ten months of 1943 there were 1015 acts of sabotage and diversions in Bulgaria, and only in July 1944 697 acts.

In the course of the people's liberation struggle the unity of the masses was created and strengthened and the foundation of the future people's democratic government was laid. Power. The working class, peasants and the working intelligentsia began to collaborate militarily, and the influence of the working class as a consistent fighter for the interests of the working people increased. Thus, the national liberation struggle was essentially a class revolutionary struggle of the working people, led by the working class and led by its vanguard, the Communist Party, against the bourgeoisie, the reactionary officialdom and monarchy, and the officers who collaborated with the occupants.

When in the summer of 1944 the Soviet troops defeated the German hordes on the territory of Romania and came to the borders of Bulgaria, the Bulgarian government Bagrimov August 26. 1944 issued a statement of its "complete neutrality". It was a ploy to deceive the Bulgarian people and the world public opinion with its false declarations of neutrality and to keep the retreating German troops in the territory of Bulgaria from imminent defeat and to give them an opportunity to create a new bridgehead for resistance. 5 Sept. 1944 Minister of Foreign Affairs of BSSR BulgariaM. Molotov handed to the Bulgarian envoy in Moscow a note which said: if during the last three years Soviet government assumed that the small country was not able to resist the powerful German forces then under changed conditions it was possible to expect Bulgaria to refuse its pro-German policy and to break with Germany. Despite this the Bulgarian right refuses to break with Germany, in fact it is helping Germany against the Soviet Union. And by virtue of this, the Soviet Government...", the note continued, "declares that not only is Bulgaria at war with the USSR, as in fact it has been at war with the

(Pravda, 1944, BulgariaS., No. 214, p. 1).

Declaration of war by Soviet Union against monarch-fascist Bulgaria and entry of Soviet troops on the territory of Bulgaria was invaluable assistance of USSR to the Bulgarian people in their struggle against the clique of criminal rulers, foreign invaders and exploiting classes which supported them. At the same time by this act the Soviet government thwarted the machinations of the Anglo-American imperialists who sought to use the formal "neutrality" of Bulgaria in the war against the USSR to sign a separate armistice with Bulgaria, occupy it and the countries of Southeast Europe, maintain imperialist slavery in them and turn them into an anti-Soviet bridgehead. Appropriate secret negotiations between the Anglo-American representatives and representatives of the Bulgarian fascist clique took place in Istanbul and Cairo (1943-44). The rapid advance of the Soviet Army disrupted the secret negotiations between the monarcho-fascist clique of Bulgaria and the Anglo-American imperialist bloc and allowed the Uolish people to decide their own fate. On September 8, 1944 the Soviet troops, passing through the retreating German units, entered the territory of Bulgaria and occupied the towns of Ruse, Turtukai, Silistra, Dobrich, Razgrad, Shumen, and the Black Sea ports of Varna and Burgas. The local Bulgarian population enthusiastically met the Soviet soldiers, their liberators from the Nazi yoke. To the aid of the Soviet Army came the forces of the popular resistance movement, the whole working Bulgarian people rose. As early as September 0, 1944 the miners in Perinka began a strike that was the signal for the political strike of the whole country.

=== People's Democracy Bulgaria ===
On the night of September 8-9, 1944 partisan units and patriotic military units, including the only tank brigade in Bulgaria occupied state institutions and important strategic objects in Sofia. On September 9 sept. 1944 as a result of the popular uprising the fascist government was overthrown and the first Bulgarian government of the Home Front was established. Following the overthrow of the Fascist regime and the formation of the Home Front Government the Soviet government declared the cessation of hostilities with Bulgaria from 10 o'clock in the evening of the 9th sept. 1944. "...Speaking of the victory of the nationwide" uprising on September 9," pointed out G. M. We should emphasize once again that the greatest merit in the victory of the September 9th revolt and in the liberation of our fatherland from the Nazi yoke belongs to the heroic brotherly Soviet Army and its genial leader, Generalissimo Stalin, for which the Party, the working class and all our working people will always be grateful to them" ( "Pravda, 1948, December 21, No. 350, p. 3). The events of the 9th sept. 1944 in 15. was a revolutionary upheaval that dealt a decisive blow to capitalism and marked the entrance of Bulgaria to a new stage of historical development. In P. the state power passed into the hands of the fighting alliance of workers, peasants, artisans and progressive intellectuals, with the leading role of the early class and its vanguard, the Communist Party. Г! Bulgaria The old state apparatus of suppression and exploitation of the working masses was broken and the new state power was built as an instrument of suppression of the exploiters and liberation of the workers from all exploitation.

The Home Front government immediately after September 9, 1944 undertook important measures to implement the Home Front program and strengthen the people's democracy regime. 1944 carried out important measures to implement the program of the Fatherland Front and strengthen the people's democracy regime. The new government declared war on Hitler's Germany and set a firm course for unbreakable friendship with the Soviet Union, strengthening friendly relations with all democratic nations. The Government of the Fatherland Front launched a struggle for the elimination of the remnants of the fascist regime in the country. War criminals, including former regents and some ministers, were brought to trial and severely punished. A people's militia was created, which played a major role in strengthening the people's democracy regime. All fascist organizations were disbanded and their property was confiscated. The fascist press was shut down and the printing presses were handed over to the press organs of the Fatherland Front. All Fascist - racial and other anti-people laws were abolished. On the initiative of the Communist Party in the Army the Institute of deputy commanders for political affairs was established which played an important role in its democratization. Much work was done to organize and unite the working class. Fascist "trade unions" were dissolved. In a short time, 30 industry trade unions, united in the General Workers' Trade Union were established.

The government of the Fatherland Front took urgent measures to combat economic ruin and improve the situation of the working masses. Wages of workers and employees were raised, the peasants were assisted in carrying out the sowing campaign; the fight against speculation was initiated. However, during the first period of its activity the government of the home front had to pay attention to struggle against Hitler's Germany, which had not been beaten at that time, and to conquest of a just and lasting peace. On October 28, 1944 an armistice agreement was signed in Moscow with B, the Soviet Union, England and the United States. Despite the attempts of the British and German imperialists to hinder Bulgaria's march against Fascist Germany the Bulgarian army took an active part in the last phase of the war, fighting in the 3rd Ukrainian front of the Soviet Army in Yugoslavia, Hungary and Austria. Thus the Bulgarian people, along with the partisan struggle in 1941 - 44 made a new contribution to the defeat of fascism.

The important milestone in the democratic development of Bulgaria was the first free democratic elections. The elections to the new People's Parliament were appointed on August 26. 1945. However, due to the sabotage and provocations of the inner reaction, based on the subversive activities of the Anglo-American imperialists and the open interference of England and the USA the elections were postponed until 18 November 1945. The People's Assembly was elected by a huge majority of the people. The Fatherland Front, led by the Communists, received an overwhelming majority of votes (88.18%) in these elections. In 1946 the National Assembly had passed several important laws, including the one on the landed property (the agrarian reform, which had given the land surplus of big landowners to landless and small peasants), on confiscation of wealth acquired by speculation and other illegal means, on the progressive income tax and others.

The most important question that faced the Bulgarian people was the question of the legalization and consolidation of the revolutionary victories of September 9. 1944. Despite the machinations of the reaction the Bulgarian people by means of the national referendum held on September 8, 1946 voted for the recognition of the revolutionary victories. 92.76% of the voters supported the National Republic and only 4.24% supported the Monarchy (3% abstained). Bulgaria was proclaimed a republic on 15 September. On October 27, 1946 the elections of the Great National People's Republic of Bashkortostan to the Grand National Assembly of the USSR were held. 1946 elections to the Great People's Assembly, which was called to adopt a new constitution, resulted in a victory for the forces of democracy, led by the Communist Party. The Fatherland Front won 366 seats, or 78.3 percent of the Grand National Assembly, including 276 mandates, or almost 60 percent of the Grand National Assembly. The Bulgarian people gave their full confidence in the Communist Party by popular secret ballot. In accordance with parliamentary tradition, the Communists received the right to form a new government. G. M. Dimitrov was elected prime minister of the first republican government of V. The government of G.M. Dimitrov made a number of crown social and economic changes: the Great National Assembly passed the laws on the two-year state plan (April 1947), on the nationalization of industry and banks (December 1947) and other important laws.

Socio-economic transformations in Bulgaria took place in a fierce class struggle with counter-revolutionary groups that were direct agents of Anglo-American imperialism. In 1946-47 the military-fascist organizations ("Tsar Broom", "neutral officer" and others) and the counterrevolutionary group N. Petkov were liquidated. Petkov, who were preparing a military-fascist coup to overthrow the Fatherland Front and restore the reactionary regime.

On February 10, 1947 during the Paris Peace Conference the parties signed a peace treaty. While preparing the terms of the treaty the Soviet Union representatives restored the diplomatic relations with Bulgaria as early as 14 Aug. During the preparation of the treaty the representatives of the Soviet Union that had restored the diplomatic relations with Bulgaria as early as August 14, 1945, consistently and steadfastly defended the interests of the Bulgarian people from the attacks of the British-American imperialist block and its agents - the Greek monarch-fascists and the Yugoslavian spy group Tito that tried to unseat some Bulgarian territory. The Bulgarian people, despite the machinations of the traitors and the Anglo-American imperialists, preserved the territorial integrity of the country and national independence thanks to the support of the USSR. Recognizing Bulgaria's responsibility for its participation in the criminal alliance with Nazi Germany, the treaty took into account Bulgaria's contribution to the victory over Nazi Germany by taking part in the armed struggle against it. The treaty stipulated for Bulgaria the borders that existed on January 1, 1941. Bulgaria was to pay $70 million in reparations over eight years. The signing of the peace treaty improved the international standing of Bosnia, opened up new prospects for peaceful co-operation and the successful development of the country along the lines of the people's democracy, on the road to socialism. BULGARIA established normal diplomatic relations with the majority of European and many non-European countries and took a firm place among the countries of the anti-imperialist and democratic camp led by the Soviet Union.

In fulfillment of the people's will, the Great People's Assembly on December 4, 1947 unanimously adopted the basic law of the country - the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. The Constitution legally consolidated the results of the long struggle of the Bulgarian people for their freedom and independence and the profound democratic changes that took place in the country, provided real democratic rights for the working people and created a new type of State. It was a National Republic where the power belonged to the working class and where the large industry, transport and banks belonged to the State whose leading force was the working class alliance headed by the working class and the Ogre. In Bulgaria the people's democracy regime that was established immediately after the anti-fascist uprising of 9 September 1944 was consolidated. 1944. The concentration of political power and economic supremacy in the hands of the working class enabled the people's democracy regime to fully perform the functions of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Bulgaria's greatest foreign policy success was the conclusion of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union. This treaty was signed on March 18, 1948 in Moscow and it was the most important guarantee for the freedom and independence of the Bulgarian people. Bulgaria also signed treaties of friendship, cooperation and mutual aid with the countries of people's democracy (with Albania - on December 16. Bulgaria also signed treaties of friendship and cooperation and mutual aid with the countries of people's democracy (Albania on December 16, 1947, with Romania on 16 Jan. 1948, with Czechoslovakia - 23rd ay. 1948, with Poland - 29 May 1948, with Hungary - 16 July 1948). In January 1949 Bulgaria, together with some other people's democratic countries, became a member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance created with the participation of the USSR.

At the end of December 1948 the V Congress of the BRP was held after the merger of the BRP with the Bulgarian Labor Social Democratic Party on the basis of the Marxist-Leninist program. The congress proclaimed the main task of the party and the whole Bulgarian people to establish the foundations of socialist system in the country. The realization of this task was included in the Five-Year National Economic Plan (1949-53), which was adopted at the congress and then legally approved on December 30. 1948 by the Great People's Assembly. On May 15, 1949 in Bulgaria the elections of deputies to local authorities - and regional people's councils and the election of judges were held. The elections brought a brilliant new victory to the Communist-led Fatherland Front - its candidates were voted for by 92.01%.

On July 2, 1949, Bulgaria suffered a grave loss: G. M. Dimitrov, a prominent figure of the international labor movement, the leader and teacher of the Bulgarian people, died. The Bulgarian government was headed by Vasil Kolarov, a staunch associate of G. M. Dimitrov.

The exposure of Tito's fascist clique in Yugoslavia strengthened vigilance within the Bulgarian Communist Party and led to the exposure and elimination of the conspiratorial counterrevolutionary group Tr. Koston, a gang of spies and provocateurs recruited by the British and American imperialists who had infiltrated the Bulgarian Communist Party. This gang led by the spy Postov was preparing, on the instructions of the Anglo-American imperialists and the Tito clique, to carry out a counterrevolutionary coup by means of armed action, to tear Bulgaria away from the USSR and the countries of national democracy and to turn it into a colony and a military base of the American-English imperialism. In particular, they wanted to tear off the so-called Pirnpsky region (Blagoevgrad district) from Bulgaria and give it to Yugoslavia. The attempts to carry out this plan, dating back to 1945, failed completely thanks to the opposition of the Communist Party, the people's power and personally G. M. Dimitrov. The agents of imperialist intelligence deployed sabotage and sabotage activities, continuing to assemble forces to carry out their designs for the restoration of the capitalist system in Bulgaria and cut Bulgaria off from the USSR and murder of G. M. Dimitrov and other leaders of the Bulgarian people. The defeat of this group in 1949 delivered a devastating blow to the Anglo-American imperialists and their Titoite agents.

In spite of all the vile machinations, the Anglo-American and Titoite mercenaries were not able to reverse the development of Bulgaria and prevent the strengthening of the People's Democratic Bulgaria The Bulgarian people, under the leadership of the Communist Party, Bulgaria, guided by the Marxist-Leninist learning and experience of socialist construction in the USSR, has made great success in the development of the country on the road to socialism. The country unfolded the process of industrialization and the creation of peasant production co-operatives, with the help of the People's Democratic State. In the atmosphere of exceptional solidarity of the Bulgarian people around the Communist Party on December 18, 1949 elections to the National Assembly and the county councils were held. By voting unanimously for the Fatherland Front candidates (the Fatherland Front candidates received 97.06% of the vote) the Bulgarian people voted for unbreakable friendship with the USSR, for peace, democracy and socialism. On February 1, after the death of Bulgaria Kolarov, Chairman of the Council of Ministers, which followed on January 23, 1950, the government of Bulgaria was headed by Vilko Chervenkov, Secretary of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party.

A number of trials against spy and traitor gangs (in 1947 the trial of II. Lotkov, in 1948 - K. Lulchev, in 1949 - Tr. Koston, in 1950 - groups of American and South Slavic spies), the Anglo-American imperialists did not stop their fight against the people's democratic Bulgaria On February 20, 1950, in response to the Bulgaria government's demand for the withdrawal of Heath, the American envoy and organizer of subversive and espionage activities, the U. S. government severed diplomatic relations with Bulgaria However, the Bolgarian people resolutely rejected the blackmail, threats and pressure of the imperialists.

=== End of People's Democracy ===
After the overthrow of the [[people's democracy]] in the early 1990's, poverty rates in Bulgaria increased by 750%.<ref>{{Citation|author=Branko Milanovic|year=1998|title=Income, Inequality and Poverty during the Transition from Planned to Market Economy|pdf=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321231809/https://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/CUNY-Graduate-Center/PDF/Centers/LIS/Milanovic/papers/Income_ineq_poverty_book.pdf|city=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> 20% of the population left the country and birth rates dropped to their lowest point since 1945. Almost half of Bulgarians were at risk of poverty or social exclusion in 2011. Since capitalism was restored in 1990, 57% of Bulgarians say the economy has become worse<ref>{{News citation|journalist=Richard Wike, et al.|date=2019-10-14|title=Political and economic changes since the fall of communism|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/14/political-and-economic-changes-since-the-fall-of-communism/|newspaper=Pew Research Center|retrieved=2022-02-17}}</ref> and less than 12% say ordinary people are better off.<ref name=":0">{{News citation|author=F.S.|newspaper=Political Affairs|title=An experiment in living socialism: Bulgaria then and now|date=2013-10-02|url=http://politicalaffairs.net/an-experiment-in-living-socialism-bulgaria-then-and-now/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618093545/http://politicalaffairs.net/an-experiment-in-living-socialism-bulgaria-then-and-now/|archive-date=2022-06-18|retrieved=2022-06-27}}</ref>

== Science ==
The origins of scientific and technical knowledge on the territory of Bulgaria can be traced back to the cultures of the ancient Thracians, Greeks and Romans. Since the formation of the Bulgarian state, urban planning, architecture, mining and weapons production have developed. The centuries-long Byzantine and Ottoman yoke has been detrimental to the development of Bulgaria, but the Bulgarian people have managed to avoid assimilation.

Since the second half of the 18th century there has been a period of national revival of Bulgarian culture and science. The first scientific manuals and along with them original works on natural history and medicine were created. In the 1st half of the 19th century there are geographical works ("Brief Political Geography" by Neofit Bozveli of Hilendary, etc.). Geographic and geological route researches in Bulgaria were being carried out from the 30s, mainly by foreign scientists. From the 1860s the following biology works appeared: "Man in comparison with other animals" by V. Beron (1870; published in Romania), "Zoology" (1886), and "The Natural History of Domestic Animals" by I. Gruev (1869; published in Vienna).

By the end of the 19th century science in Bulgaria received more favourable conditions for its development which was connected with the conquest of state independence and the appearance of scientific institutions. The B'lgarsko knizhovno druzhstvo (Bulgarian Book Society) established in Braila (1869) resumes its activity in Sofia. In 1884 in its structure the Natural Science Department is organized. In 1899 the Museum of Natural Science was established. In 1911 the society was reorganized into the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences with the Department of Natural and Mathematical Sciences. The first institution of higher education was the High School in Sofia (founded in 1888), where for 40 years the main scientific work of the greatest scientists of Bulgaria was concentrated. The research in the field of geology, biology, medicine, physics, chemistry, mathematics etc. was carried out. The first experimental farms in Pleven (1901), Sadov (1902), and near Ruse (1905) were established.

The works of A. Yavashev, who compiled (1887) a summary of the Bulgarian flora, stand out in the field of biology. I. Urumov, S. Petkov, D. Davidov, D. Yordanov, S. Georgiev, Bulgaria Akhtarov, N. Arnaudov, etc. - and other authors of works on geobotany, floristics, plant systematics and morphology, and nature conservation. IN 1925 N. Stoyanov and Bulgaria Stefanov published the work "Flora of Bulgaria". Zoology is represented by the works of S. Jurinich, G. Shishkov, T. Morov, I. Buresh, P. Drensky, and others. Questions of general biology and cytogenetics were investigated by M. Popov, D. Kostov, and others. A. Zlatarov's achievements in biochemistry and organic chemistry are well known. In 1930 the Marine Biological Station with an aquarium was established in Varna which was later transformed into the Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography. The agrobiological direction of research is developed by K. Markov, I. Ivanov, H. Daskalov and others. Works on animal husbandry are by J. Ganchev, S. Petrov, G. Khlebarov, N. Platikanov, and others.

During the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-78 the activity of S.. P. Botkin, N. I. Pirogov, N. V. Sklifosovsky, and other Russian physicians contributed to the development of medicine in Bulgaria, and to the drafting of sanitary legislation. In the field of medicine an outstanding role belonged to H. Stambolski, D. Mollov, P. Orahovac, and others. N. Tsokov, I. Batsarov, I. Piperkov, V. Georgiev, M. Ivanov, etc., conducted considerable research. In the 80-90's the first medical journals were established. The Medical Faculty of the University was established in 1918 (later it was reorganized into the Higher Medical Institute). The first microbiological research centers were the bacteriological stations set up in 1897 and 1901 which were later transformed into the veterinary-bacteriological and hygienic institutes.

The development of veterinary science was connected with the Veterinary Faculty of the University (1923) (now the Higher Veterinary Medicine Institute).

In geology the most important role was played by G. Zlatarski who laid down the foundations of the country's stratigraphy and started geological mapping in 1897. State geological service was founded in 1890. SINCE 1891 S. Vatsov conducted seismic research. The departments of mineralogy and petrography (1895) and geology and paleontology (1897) were established. Works on geotectonics (S. Bonchev and others), mineralogy and petrology (G. Bonchev and others), paleontology (P. Bakalov and others) were conducted. In 1925 the Bulgarian Geological Society was founded, in 1918 the Bulgarian Geographic Society was organized, and in 1927 the Department of Physical Geography was established at the University. Regional geographic (A. Ishirkov, etc.), geomorphological, climatological, and other investigations were carried out. The issues of soil science were studied (N. Pushkarov, etc.). In 1934 the Central Meteorological Institute was established on the base of the meteorological service which was founded in 1894.

The scientific activity of P. Raikov, who was head of the department of organic chemistry from 1894 to 1935, played an important role in the development of chemical research. Famous are the chemical researches of Z. Karaoglanov (analytical chemistry), D. Balarev (general and inorganic chemistry), G. Rankov (fats technology), D. Ivanov (organic chemistry), I. Stransky, etc. Since 1923 there has been a society of chemists with a printed organ "Chemistry and Industry".

The research in physics was begun in the Higher School in Sofia and in the Physico-mathematical Society of Bulgaria which was founded in 1898. The first great physicist who worked in Bulgaria was the Russian scientist P. I. Bakhmetyev, whose research covered the problems of ferromagnetism (especially the phenomena of magnetostriction), thermoelectricity; he also studied the phenomena of anabiosis. Studies were conducted by A. Khristov on the molecular physics of solutions and electrolytes, by P. Penchev, E. Karamikhailov, and others on the radioactivity of natural waters and rocks. In the physics of dielectrics and semiconductors, G. Nadzhakov discovered the photoelectric state of matter. In 1892 the department of astronomy was established at the high school in Sofia, and in 1894 an observatory was founded (under the direction of M. Bychvarov). The first astronomical works were by N. Stoyanov and K. Popov.

The mathematical sciences were mainly developed in the works of the professors of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Sofia University K. Popov, I. Tsenov, L. Chakalov, N. Obreshkov, and others.

The development of natural and technical sciences was hindered by the political regime, weak material resources, the small number of research personnel, etc.

Overthrow of the monarch-fascist regime in Bulgaria (1944) and the beginning of the process of socialist construction in the country ushered in a new era in the history of Bulgarian science. The main scientific centers are the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Academy of Agricultural Sciences (ASN).

At the present stage of development, Bulgarian science has made progress in many directions. Fruitful mathematical research was continued by K. Popov (mathematical theory of irreversible thermodynamic processes), L. Chakalov (theory of functions), I. Tsenov (analytical mechanics), and N. Obreshkov (theory of series, linear algebra, probability theory). G. Bradistilov (nonlinear differential equations and their applications), Bulgaria Petkanchin (axiomatic geometry, differential geometry), Bulgaria Dolapchiev (analytic mechanics), L. Iliev (theory of functions), and Y. Tagamlitsky (functional analysis) joined the research. During the 60's, teams were created to develop the main directions of modern mathematics and its applications. In collaboration with the USSR Academy of Sciences and the academies of other socialist countries, the problems of mathematical support for computers, automata theory, control theory, and mathematical modeling (L. Iliev, Bulgaria Sendov, and others) were investigated.

The progress of physical sciences was stimulated by a considerable improvement in the material-experimental base. The main areas of research are solid state physics, especially semiconductors, nuclear physics, and electronics (G. Nadzhakov, S. Petrov, M. Borisov, R. Andreychin, etc.). Studies on the creation of semiconductor devices were begun. The comprehensive development of problems of solid state physics is conducted jointly with the USSR Academy of Sciences, the German Academy of Sciences in Berlin, etc. In 1961 with the help of USSR an experimental nuclear reactor was built, a laboratory was organized and nuclear research was started. In cooperation with Hungarian Academy of Sciences a high-mountain space station with a cosmic ray laboratory was built on the top of Musala. The main fields of research in electronics are emission and gas electronics, quantum electronics, ultrahigh frequencies, and thin layer electronics (E. Djakov et al.). In the field of theoretical physics, A. Datsev, H. Khristov, I. Todorov, and others are working. In 1952 the astronomy section of the BAS was founded. Bulgarian astronomers are developing the problems of cosmogony, in particular the Moon (N. Bonev), variable stars, solar activity, meteor astronomy, meteoritics, etc.

Progress has been made in the unification of geodesic and cartographic works; original studies of geodesic coordinates have been conducted (V. Khristov and others). Geophysical research has become multifaceted. Atmospheric physics is developing in connection with meteorology, climatology, synoptic and aerology. The processes of formation of clouds and precipitation, as well as atmospheric circulation and turbulence of air currents are being studied (L. Krystanov and others). The lower ionosphere is sounded, electrical characteristics of the middle ionosphere are obtained (G. Nestorov et al.). Studies on gravimetry and seismology are being conducted.

Development of earth sciences is connected with tasks of use of natural resources of the country, and, in particular, with intensification of geological prospecting works. Geological research is also conducted in connection with hydrotechnical, road and capital construction. The main directions of research are regional studies of the composition and structure of the earth's crust and patterns in the distribution of minerals. It is focused on geotectonics (E. Bonchev et al.), magmatism and metallogeny (S. Dimitrov et al.), crystallochemistry, geochemistry and mineralogy (I. Kostov et al.), engineering geology and soil science (Bulgaria Kamenov et al.), hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry. Stratigraphic and lithologic studies of geological formations and related mineral resources are being conducted. Paleontological studies have been developed (V. Tsankov et al.). Regional work has led to the discovery of new mineral deposits of oil, coal, iron and manganese ores, polymetals, copper and molybdenum. (I. Yovchev et al.) and contributed to solving the issues of water supply in certain regions (Dobrudja) and settlements. Engineering-geological and hydrogeological zoning of Bulgaria has been completed.

Complex and sectoral geographic research is carried out in various regions of Bulgaria (J. Gylybov etc.). The geomorphological researches have been developed. The "Climatic Atlas" and "Climatic Guidebook NRB" have been published. Economic and geographic works are devoted to the geography of population, industry, transport, agriculture (A. Beshkov and others). Together with Soviet geographers he wrote a collective two-volume work "The Geography of Bulgaria" (1961-66).

The chemical investigations are expanding and deepening. The theory of crystal growth developed in the 1930s (I. Stransky and R. Kaishev) was further developed (R. Kaishev, G. Bliznakov, E. Budevski, N. Pangarov). Progress has been made in the study of the following problems: stability of colloidal films (A. Sheludko), mechanism of photographic image formation (I. Malinovskii), quantum-chemical theory of hydrogen overvoltage and electron emission of metals and semiconductors (S. Khristov), adsorption and inorganic catalysis, and analytical chemistry (N. Penchev et al.).

Successful studies are carried out in organic synthesis (D. Ivanov, A. Spasov, Ch. Ivanov, Kh. Ivanov, and others), stereochemistry and conformation analysis (Bulgaria Kurtev and others), homogeneous and heterogeneous organic catalysis (D. Shopov and others), quantum organic chemistry and molecular spectroscopy, on natural substances (terpenes, alkaloids, and lipids) and synthetic polymers.

In the field of biology the most significant research began after 1959. Research institutes and laboratories were established in new fields (biochemistry, biophysics, plant and animal physiology, industrial microbiology). New problems and modern experimental methods are being developed in the field of classical biological sciences. Achievements of biological science are successfully applied in medicine, agriculture and industry. The description of the flora and fauna of Bulgaria is completed. A multi-volume edition "Flora of Bulgaria" (edited by D. Yordanov et al.) is published, and the edition "Fauna of Bulgaria" is in preparation. The research has enriched the theory of stimulation and inhibition of life processes in plants and explained some peculiarities of photosynthesis and its products (K. Popov et al.). Virology, immunology, microbiology (S. Angelov, V. Markov, A. Toshkov, I. Kuyumdzhiev, etc.) have made progress. Some aspects of microbial metabolism have been studied and the influence of certain factors on biosynthesis of vitamins, enzymes, amino acids and other biologically active substances has been explained (I. Emanuilov, I. Pashev, etc.). New enzymes and preparations with strong proteolytic and other actions have been obtained (I. Pashev et al.).

An original method has been developed for quantitative determination of nucleic acids in animal tissues (R. Tsanev et al.). The integrated studies on biocenosis and ecosystems, on biological productivity of the biosphere, and on the rational use of biological resources are being carried out.

In the field of helminthology and general parasitology the problems of parasite distribution and ecology, manifestation of immunity and pathogenesis (K. Matov, I. Vasilev, P. Pavlov) have been studied.

There are significant achievements in agricultural science, especially in breeding and plant breeding (H. Daskalov, A. Popov, P. Popov, R. Georgieva, K. Stoev, etc.). Large specialized institutes for main agricultural crops (wheat, maize, tobacco, vegetable crops, fruit, grapes, cotton, roses, etc.) have been created and are operating, whose activities are mainly aimed at developing the technology of crop cultivation and creating new, more productive and high-quality varieties. New varieties and hybrids of tomatoes, grapes, tobacco, corn, cotton, etc. are obtained. Research work has been done on plant protection (I. Kovaczewski), as well as on breeding of agricultural animals (N. Platikanov, S. Kumanov, K. Bratanov, etc.), on establishing the nutritive value of fodder, on creating new breeds of agricultural animals, and on artificial insemination.

In the field of veterinary medicine physiological processes in the digestive system of domestic animals (T. Radev et al.), problems of reproduction biology and immunity, reactions during fertilization (K. Bratanov et al.), problems of zoohygiene, in particular industrial animal husbandry (G. Petkov). The pathogenesis, morphology and immunity of a number of parasitic and other diseases of agricultural animals have been studied (K. Ivanov et al.). The etiology and epizootology of a number of infectious diseases have been clarified (I. Chenchev, T. Iliev, P. Pavlov, A. Toshkov, E. Yanev). The etiology of mycoses of birds has been established (K. Ivanov, S. Nedyalkov, Z. Mladenov). The disorders of mineral and vitamin metabolism in growing and highly productive animals (Bulgaria Nachev et al.), problems of veterinary toxicology, pharmacology (P. Popov, D. Drumev, P. Gabrishansky et al.) were studied. The dynamics of microbiological and biochemical processes in animal products were studied and the standards for veterinary and sanitary control and examination were proposed (I. Emanuilov, C. Zakhariyev, I. Yotov, etc.).

Research work in the field of medicine was also widely deployed. All scientific medical institutions worked under the guidance of a single scientific medical council. Experimental methods were introduced for solving scientific tasks in the field of medical-biological, clinical and hygienic disciplines. The most significant of the medical problems being developed are: morphology and reactivity of the organism in ontogenesis (A. Hadjiolov, D. Kadanov, etc.), physiological mechanisms of regulation (D. Orahovac, D. Mateev), scientific bases of nutrition, dietetics and gastroenterology (T. Tashev, H. Brailski, A. Maleev), cardiovascular diseases (A. Puhlev, M. Rashev), neurology and psychiatry (G. Uzunov, N. Shipkovski, G. Nastev), dermatology and venereology (L. Popov, P. Popchristov, etc.), endocrinology (I. Penchev, A. Popov, etc.), inflammatory and degenerative joint diseases (V. Tsonchev), and pathophysiology (V. Serafimov).

Technical sciences are being developed in higher education institutions, in BAN and sectoral institutes. Progress was made in the field of water management and hydraulic engineering, technical and structural mechanics, power engineering and electrical engineering, metal science and metal technology, the theory of architecture and urban planning.

Theoretical problems are being worked out and experimental research in the field of building constructions because of the introduction of industrial methods in housing construction (G. Brankov and others). Significant results were achieved in the creation of new building materials. The rapid-hardening cement was created and put into production (I. Simeonov and others). Studies on many issues of construction of hydrotechnical and land reclamation structures (D. Velev) as well as hydrotechnics and hydraulics were completed.

In mechanical engineering technology, special methods of metal testing were developed. New casting methods were created that made it possible to control and regulate the parameters of the casting process (A. Balevsky, I. Dimov, etc.), which resulted in increased productivity and product quality.

In connection with the rapidly developing electrical industry and instrumentation industry, research and results were obtained in the field of electrical engineering and radio engineering (A. Atanasov and others). Automation problems are being developed. Unique devices and systems are created which were introduced into production, discrete devices for control and management of production processes. A number of technical magazines were published in Bulgaria, the main of which was "Tekhnicheska Misyl" (1964-2002).<ref>{{Citation|author=Bozhkov S.|year=1969|title=Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. Brief essay 1869-1969}}</ref>

== References ==
[[Category:Countries]]

Republic of Bulgaria

2022-11-14T21:45:43Z

GheorgheCraciun:

{{Infobox country|name=Republic of Bulgaria|government_type=Unitary parliamentary republic|anthem=Мила Родино|map_width=200|leader_name3=[[Kiril Petkov Petkov]]|leader_name2=[[Iliana Iotova]]|leader_name1=[[Rumen Radev]]|leader_title3=Prime Minister|leader_title2=Vice President|leader_title1=President|mode_of_production=[[Capitalism]]|native_name=Република България|area_km2=110,993.6|population_estimate_year=2021|population_estimate=6,875,040|image_map=Bulgaria map.png|motto=Съединението прави силата|flag_alt=Three horizontal stripes; from top to bottom, white, green, and red.|image_coat=Bulgarian COA.png|image_flag=Bulgarian flag.png|englishmotto="Unity makes strength"}}

'''Bulgaria''', officially the '''Republic of Bulgaria''', was the first country of the Eastern Bloc to break away from the capitalist system and take the road of socialist development, as a result of the world-historical victory of the revolutionary struggle of the working people, led by the working class and under the leadership of the Communist Party.

Bulgaria is located in the eastern part of the [[Balkans|Balkan Peninsula]], bordering [[Romania]], [[Republic of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Republic of North Macedonia|North Macedonia]], [[Hellenic Republic|Greece]] and [[Republic of Turkey|Turkey]]. The territory of Bulgaria is 110,993 km2.<ref>{{Citation|author=Penin, Rumen|year=2007|title=Природна география на България [Natural Geography of Bulgaria]}}</ref> The capital is [[Sofia]]. Administratively, Bulgaria is divided into 28 okrugs, and each okrug into a number of obshtini (a total of 265, divided by the cities). The largest cities are Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna, Burgas, Ruse, Stara Zagora and Pleven.

== Georgaphy ==
Bulgaria is located in the temperate zone; in terms of natural conditions it occupies a transitional area between Eastern and Central Europe on the north and the Mediterranean on the south.

=== Topography ===
The terrain of Bulgaria is extremely varied. There are mountainous areas (altitudes above 600m) which occupy 23% of the country's area and hilly areas (from 200m to 600m) which account for 41% of the country's area. There are also significant plains (up to 200m) which occupy almost a third of the country's area - 31%. In the north of Bulgaria the Danube plain rises from 100-380 m in the west to 500 m in the east. Deep river valleys partition it into hilly and plateau-like areas. The plain drops to a high escarpment (up to 100 m) in the Danube River valley, and to the east, it becomes the Dobroudja Plateau. The Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains) are situated to the south of the plain and cross all of Balkan from W. to E. The middle and western parts of the mountains are higher (their maximum height is 1,500-2,000 m, while the eastern part is lower (1,600-1,100 m) and more rugged. South of the middle part of Stara Planina stretches a chain of less high mountains Sredna Gora (up to 1604 m high). Sredna Gora and Stara Planina are connected in some places by cusps of 1000-1300 m, between which there are tectonic depressions (Kazanlak, Karlovo, etc.) that are called Podbalkan Depression. The Rila, Pirin and Rhodope Mountains occupy the south and south-west of the country. Rila and Pirin are the highest part of the entire Balkan Peninsula (Musala, 2925 m, Vihren, 2914 m), with alpine-type peaks. Between the Rhodopes and Sredna Gora along the Maritsa River stretches the most fertile in the country Verhnefrakiyskaya lowland. It is separated from the Black Sea Lowland by the Tuncian Hills and the Strandzha Mountains (Istranca in Turkish). The Black Sea coast of B. is mostly low, in some places with steep shores; there are many beaches. In the extreme south-east are the northern spurs of the Strandzha Mountains.<ref>{{Citation|author=Георгиев (Georgiev), Владимир (Vladimir); et al.|year=1986|title=Енциклопедия България [Encyclopaedia Bulgaria]}}</ref>

=== Geology ===
In terms of geological structure the territory of Bulgaria belongs to the Mediterranean folded belt. In the north of Bulgaria there is the Mysian platform, composed of horizontally lying Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments, deposited on folded Precambrian rocks. To the south stretches the Pre-Balkan zone, composed of folded sediments of the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene. The Stara Planina megantiklinorium occupies the axial part of the Balkans, composed of Paleozoic rocks in the core and Jurassic and Triassic rocks on the E. On the wings and in narrow synclines, there are Mesozoic and Paleogene deposits. Further to the south, there is the Sredna Gora zone, consisting of horticlinorie, formed by Paleozoic and Precambrian metamorphic rocks, and graben-synclinorie, filled mainly with Upper Cretaceous flysch and andesites. From the north, the Sredna Gora zone is bounded by the Zabalkan deep fault, along which there are structures of pinnacles and depressions made by Neogene-Paleogene continental sediments. The southern part of Bulgaria is occupied by the Rhodope Massif, consisting of Precambrian crystalline rocks overlain by Paleogene sediments. It is bounded on the north by the Maritsa Fault, and on the west by the Kraiště fold-break system.

The most important minerals: coal (East Maritsa, Pernik, Bobov Dol basins), iron ores (Kremikovskoe deposit), lead-zinc ores (Rodop massif), copper ores (Medet deposit), rock salt (district Mirovo), oil (Mizi platform), mineral waters, construction materials.

=== Climate ===
Most of Bulgaria has a temperate, continental climate; in the south, especially along the valleys of the Struma and Mesta Rivers, the climate is transitional to the Mediterranean climate. There is an altitudinal climatic zonation in the mountains. An important climatic boundary between N. and S. is the Stara Planina. The average January temperature ranges from -2° C to +2.5° C in the plains and up to -10.8° C in the mountains (Musala); in July, it is 25.1° C (Petrich) and 5.1° C (Musala), respectively. Precipitation is brought by Western and Northwestern winds, their annual precipitation is 450-600 mm in the lowlands and 850-1300 mm in the mountains, with a maximum in the first half of summer. The driest time of year is the beginning of autumn. Droughts occur in summer in many areas (mainly on the plains). The snow cover stays for 50-70 days in the north, 20-30 days in the south, and for up to 7-8 months in the mountains.

=== Hydrography ===
There are relatively many rivers in Bulgaria (except for the eastern part of the Danubian hilly plain), but most of them are of short length and mountainous nature and become very shallow in late summer. The Danube is the only navigable river. The biggest tributary of the Danube in Bulgaria is the Iskar River. The most full-flowing of the Aegean Rivers is the Maritsa (its main tributaries are the Tunza and the Arda), then the Strouma and the Mesta. The rivers are important as sources of hydropower and irrigation. Many reservoirs have been built on them. There are few lakes (mainly of glacial origin, in the Rila and Pirin Mountains) and they are not large. There are more than 500 mineral springs in Bulgaria.

=== Soils and vegetation ===
Soils and vegetation. Soils in the Danube Plain are predominantly black and gray forest ashy, brown and dense black soils ("smolnytsi") to the south of Stara Planina, and brown forest, mountain forest, dark-colored, mountain-meadow and skeleton soils in the mountains. In floodplains - fertile alluvial soils.

Vegetation is represented by forests, occupying about 3.7 mln ha (1968) or about 1/3 of the territory of the country (including more than 1 mln ha occupied by man-made forest plantations). 75.3% are deciduous forests, mainly composed of oak and hornbeam on the N. and eastern beech on the S.-E. Floodplain forests - longhouses (elm, ash, etc.) are characteristic. In the mountains, higher deciduous forests up to heights of 1700-2000 m are coniferous forests of pine, spruce and fir (24.7%). 87.8% of the forests are used mainly for timber production, 5.8% are protective forests, 2.1% are resort forests, 1.7% are green forests, 0.5% are shelterbelt forests, and 0.4% are protected areas (1965). Shibliak (bush oak, Derzhi tree, juniper, in the South - also pistachio) is typical of shrub thickets. Grass formations are represented by dry, subalpine and alpine meadows and steppe vegetation in the North.<ref>{{Citation|author=Eramov, Р. A.|year=1961-66|title=География на България [Geography of Bulgaria]}}</ref>

=== Fauna ===
Animals of different origins are represented in Bulgaria. Central European species are mainly found in northern Bulgaria and Stara Planina, steppe species are mainly found in eastern Bulgaria, arcto-alpine species in the upper mountain belts, and Mediterranean species in the southern part of the country. In the forests one can meet red deer, fallow deer, roe deer, chamois, and wild boar; in the mountains black polecat, weasel, badger, wolf, fox, European cat, squirrel, brown hare, dormouse, and small rodents are typical. In treeless northern areas - gopher, polecat, hamster, gnatcat. The bird fauna is rich, consisting of species that are common in southern and central Europe. A variety of reptiles, especially in the south. In the Black Sea near the coast of Bulgaria pelamid, mackerel, mullet, flounder are caught; in the Danube - starred sturgeon, pike-perch, carp.

== History ==
The earliest period of Bulgarian history is represented by Palaeolithic and Neolithic monuments. The monuments of the Eeolithic culture are close to the so-called Trypillian culture of the late 3rd and early 2nd millenniums BC, which was widespread in the Diepris-Distrovsky basin. The funerary inclusions of the burial mounds testify to the elements of the Scythian culture in the Balkan Peninsula in the middle of the 1st millennium BC.

The population had a difficult process of mutual influence of different ethnic elements. The [[Slavs]] were the predominant ethnic elements on the whole Balkan Peninsula in the middle of the 7th century. By that time the land cultivation and cattle breeding were the main occupations of the people who lived on the territory of the modern Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The social and economic organization of the Slavs was the tribal community. The development of productive forces resulted in the disintegration of the primitive communal relations and the transition to a class society: the power of tribal chiefs strengthened, the property stratification increased and the relations of classes began to replace kinship relations which gave rise to the state.

In the 7th century in the Danube part of the Balkan Peninsula there was a union of seven Slavic tribes which was the initial form of the political union and became the basis of the appearing state.

In the second half of the 7th century Bulgarian tribes under the leadership of [[Asparuh]] appeared on the right bank of the Danube. These tribes came into contact with the local Slavic population. Subsequently Bulgarians were completely assimilated into the main mass of Slavs, giving them their tribal name - Bulgarians. Bulgarians adopted Slavic language and Slavic culture.

Fearing that the territory of the future Bulgaria would fall away from the Byzantine Empire, [[Byzantium]] opposed the Bulgarians. The clash between the Bulgarians and Byzantium ended in failure for the latter. Byzantine Emperor [[Constantine IV]] was forced to make peace with the Bulgarians and undertook to pay tribute to them (679 or 681).

The Treaty of Peace between the Bulgarians and Byzantium was Byzantium's recognition of the existence of a new state of Bulgaria. Asparuh's successor Terpel (701-718) took part in the struggle of the pretenders to the Byzantine throne, assisting [[Justinian II]]. Justinian granted him the title of Caesar. Bulgaria gained serious political importance in the Peninsula. The military clash between Byzantium and Bulgaria that followed soon led to the signing of a treaty (716) which put the border between the two countries and normalized the order of trade communications. Plyasca became the capital of Bulgaria.

=== Bulgarians during feudalism ===
The development of feudal relations in B. was reflected in the fact that the growing Bulgarian-Slavic nobility expanded their possessions at the expense of the communal land and subjugated the peasantry. The development of private property was ruining the community and weakening it. The individual economy of the community members strengthened. The class struggle between the enslaved peasantry and strengthening class of feudal lords aggravated. At the same time there was a struggle for power and influence within the ruling stratum of the forming feudal state. By the beginning of the 10th century, the formation of feudal relations was completed. By this time assimilation of Bulgarians by the Slavic population was basically over. The peasants were in varying degrees of dependence on the feudals: along with the enslaved peasants there were also legally free peasants. The class of feudal lords was not homogenous: its highest layer ("great boyars") was nearest to the kings; "petty boyars" had different service in the capital and in the province or lived in their own lands, going to war with their squadrons.

The development of feudal relations was accompanied by some economic growth. The geographical position of Bulgaria through which the trade routes passed that connected Western Kirov with the East and Russia with the Byzantine Empire contributed to the growth of the Bulgarian trade. The economic importance of Danube and Black Sea towns increased. Trade connections with Byzantium became stronger and the economic upturn contributed to the strengthening of Borisov.

The beginning of the 9th century was the period of the territorial expansion of Bulgaria. The Avars were defeated and their lands on the left bank of the Danube were annexed to Bulgaria. Bulgarian lands reached the Tissa (Tisza), the Carpathians and Dniester. Prince Krum (802-814) took Serdica (Sredets, later Sofia) in the south. Krum tried to strengthen the state internally as well by issuing a number of laws. Krum's successor Omortagh founded Preslav, the new capital of Bulgaria

The close contact with the neighboring countries, especially Byzantium, led to the cultural rapprochement of Bulgaria with them. It was expressed in the gradual spread of the Christianity in Blaise. However though there were a lot of Christians among the Slavic population the official religion was still pagan which was not suitable for the new feudal relations. Prince Boris of Bulgaria, who ruled from 852 to 888, was baptized by the Byzantine clergy in 804 or 805. The baptism caused a revolt of the boyars, which was brutally suppressed by Boris.

The arrival of the Greek clergy in Bulgaria caused a danger of ecclesiastical, political and cultural subjugation of Bulgaria by Byzantium. In this context Boris entered into negotiations for the recognition of the independence of the Bulgarian Church, but achieved his goal. Bulgaria remained subordinated to the Constantinople Patriarch.

The acceptance of Christianity sped up the restructuring of the legal order. A judicial people's law was compiled as a code for civil, family, and criminal law. In the second half of the 80s of the 9th century the pupils of Methodius Clement, Nahum, Aggslarius, who had been expelled from Moravia, arrived in Bulgaria They created schools and started translating books from the Greek into the Slavic language. The end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th centuries is the time of the cultural blossom of the ancient Byzantine Empire. Not only translated, but also original works appeared.

The economic growth and political and cultural development of Byzantium which made it a rival to Byzantium on the Balkan Peninsula led to the wars between Byzantium and Byzantium during the reign of Simeon (893-927) who called himself "king of the Bulgarians and the Greeks". The result of these wars was a significant expansion of the Bulgarian territory in the Balkan Peninsula but the ownership of the Bulgarian lands on the left bank of the Danube was largely captured by the Hungarians. The fight with Byzantium required a huge effort of the population which was devastated by the repeated moves of the Byzantine and Byzantine troops in the country. Feudal exploitation of peasants increased dramatically. The economic power and political role of individual feudal lords increased. All this has led to a sharp social and political crisis expressed in the anti-feudal peasants' movement which has taken the religious form of heresy the so called [[Bogomils|Bogomilism]] and in feudal conspiracies. The Bogomil movement was directed against the very foundations of the feudal system. The Bogomils opposed the dependence of peasants on feudal lords and feudal obligations. They resented the luxury of the secular and church nobility and the idleness of the monks. The dissemination of theophilism and the growth of Bogomilskie speeches indicate the rise of the anti-feudal peasant movement. Feudal conspiracies and attempts of feudal uprisings (928 and 930) resulted in the fall of the western part of Benin and the formation of the West Bulgarian Empire (909-1018).

The weakening of Bulgaria due to the feudal fragmentation caused the Byzantine Empire to attempt to subjugate Bulgaria. The Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus II Phokas put Prince Svyatoslav in the fight with the Byzantine Empire. Svyatoslav attacked Dobrudzha (907 or 908) and took the town of Maly Preslav, where he decided to settle. Byzantium did not intend to assist in the spreading of the prince's power on the Danube lands and therefore Svyatoslav returned to his homeland. However soon (909 or 971) Svyatoslav returned to Bulgaria, where the population supported him in the fight against Byzantium. Svyatoslav recognized the Bulgarian King Boris II as his legitimate ruler. The second appearance of Svyatoslav led to a clash between the troops of the Kievan prince, who were helped by the Bulgarians, and the Byzantine troops. This struggle on the territory of Bulgaria ended in the defeat of Svyatoslav.

The Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes who led a campaign against Svyatoslav and his Bulgarian allies, assured that his task was to liberate Bulgaria but after Svyatoslav left he proclaimed the annexation of Bulgaria to the Byzantine Empire, destroyed the Bulgarian patriarchy, formed under Simeon, and took the last Bulgarian king to Constantinople. The East-Bulgarian kingdom fell (972).

The Western Bulgarian empire has existed 46 more years. During this period the most part of the Bulgarian lands has been released. Long period of wars with Byzantium proceeded, passing at first rather successfully for Bulgarian, but then the vice versa has appeared on the party of Byzantium. In 1014 Emperor Basil II, later nicknamed "Bulgar-slayer", defeated the Bulgarian army at Belasitsa. Military successes of the Byzantines and the struggle between the pretenders to the Bulgarian throne demoralized the Bulgarian feudal lords. When Basil II undertook a second march in 1018 the members of the Tsar's house and the boyars who had attached to them capitulated. Separate attempts by the Bulgarians to continue the struggle were unsuccessful.

=== Volga Riya under Byzantine rule (1018 - 1185) ===
Bulgaria was gradually transformed into a Byzantine province and the general Byzantine administrative system was extended to it. The West Bulgarian church was transformed into an archbishopric subject to the patriarch of Constantinople, archbishops were appointed from the Greeks. Thus, the Bulgarian church lost its national character. Byzantium tried to destroy the very name "Bulgaria" and usually called it Mezia.

Under Byzantine Domination the state of the Bulgarian population significantly worsened: the number and size of the taxes for the enslaved peasants increased dramatically, the land tax was levied in money, the state bought the products of the peasant labor at a compulsory price. The institution of irony (temporary grants of land to feudal lords) was widely spread. As rent could not become a hereditary property, Proniar tried to gain maximum profit during the period of land tenure and burdened peasants with work and levies. The abuses of the Byzantine authorities, levies in favor of the Greek clergy, and increasing taxes led to the ruin and enslavement of the peasants.

The severity of the feudal oppression caused a new growth of the Bogomil movement, which this time was directed mainly against foreign rule. The widespread dissemination of the doctrine of the Bogomils resulted in cruel persecutions and executions. The pillaging and ruin of Borisov led to the worsening of the fight against the Byzantine yoke. In 1040 in connection with the order to collect the land tax in monetary form unrest began in Borisov. The grandson of the Tsar Samuel Peter Deliang raised a rebellion which involved the Skopje region, the Drach region and Epirus. In 1072 the Bulgarians revolted under the leadership of the Skovlian boyar Georgin Vontokh having proclaimed Constantine Bodan king. This rebellion was also defeated.

The population of the eastern part of the country did not participate in the liberation of Borislavl as it was exposed to the attacks of the Pechenegian attackers. In 1048 the Byzantine Emperor consented to the settlement of 20 thousand Pechenegs in North Bosnia in order to make the position of the Bulgarians more difficult. 20 thousand Pechenegs horde. A year later several hundred thousand Pechenegs invaded the Danube region. These raids were repeated later. Since the end of the 50s of the 11th century the attacks of Uzes (Thors), Magyars and Polovetses began. In 1090-97 the crusaders who participated in the first crusade and ruined and plundered the citizens passed through Bulgaria The invasions of the nomads, crusaders and military service resulted in the reduction of the Bulgarian population.

Bulgaria was in constant political and cultural contact with Russia. Most of the Bulgarian uprisings against Byzantine rule usually coincided in time with the periods of Russia's clashes with Byzantium. The Byzantine Empire, exhausted by this, left the Danube region to its fate, which opened new opportunities for the Bulgarian people to fight for the liberation of Bulgaria

=== Liberation of Bulgaria from the Byzantine yoke. The Second Bulgarian Kingdom (1185 - 1396) ===
Around 1185 a rebellion started in Tarnovo, led by the local feudal lords, the Asen and Piotr brothers. The uprising spread throughout the Danube region and was supported by other feudal lords and the people, leading to the creation of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom. Major victories were won under the successor of Assn (1186-97) and Peter (1137) who were murdered by the boyars - their third brother Kaloyan who ruled from 1197 - 1207 when Bulgaria regained its independence and expanded its borders in the west. By the peace treaty of 1202 Byzantium recognized the independence of Bulgaria After the failure of the negotiations with Byzantium on the recognition of the royal title and the independence of the Bulgarian Church Kaloyan concluded a church union with the pope. The supremacy of the Pope over the Bulgarian Church was recognized, leaving it with internal autonomy; the Pope granted Kaloyan the title of King. The union had no serious repercussions. When Byzantium was captured by the Western Knights of the Crusades in 1204, Kaloyan defeated them in 1205 at Adrianople, which stopped their further advance across the Balkan Peninsula. Like his brothers, Kaloyan was assassinated by the boyars, who could not accept the loss of their former privileges and were in a conspiracy with the Byzantine court.

The Second Bulgarian Kingdom reached its greatest prosperity under Ivan Asen II (1218-41). He seized the throne with the help of a Russian military detachment. During this period the possessions of Bulgaria in the west were extended and Wallachia Minor (on the left bank of the Danube) was annexed, followed by Southern Bulgaria In 1230, after the defeat of the Despot of Epiros at the battle of Klscotnica, his possessions (Macedonia, Northern Greece, Albania) were annexed to Bulgaria Bulgaria became the largest power in the Balkan Peninsula.

But these successes were unstable due to the strengthening of feudal feuds. During this period the large landholdings of the feudal lords increased. They captured lands of Byzantine landowners and communal lands.

The process of development of feudal relations was expressed in strengthening of peasants' dependence and their exploitation. Most of the peasants were in the position of serfs.

Large landowners as a result of the development of trade with Italy were able to sell their bread. The privileged position of the large landowners

The privileged position of the large landowners strengthened the importance of the nobility. Already under Kaloyan the power of the state had to struggle against the desire of the feudal lords to isolate themselves. At the very beginning of the 13th century the governor Slav in the Rhodopes broke away from Bulgaria, and another big feudal Stroz not only declared himself independent but urged others to do the same which resulted in leaving a large part of Macedonia out of the king's power. There was a fierce struggle within the ruling class. Ivan Asesho II temporarily managed to subdue large feudal lords. He gave land and privileges to feudal lords, but at the same time he tried to strengthen the central state power. He created army, independent from feudal lords; administrative and tax system reminiscent of the Byzantine system was introduced on the king's lands. Privileges for Dubrovshchik merchants promoted the development of trade and growth of economic life of the country. But the development of foreign trade did not strengthen the internal unity of the country due to the lack of significant internal economic links. The process of feudal fragmentation intensified under the successors of Ivan Assn II. The feudal lords in various parts of Benin broke off with the Tsar, often allied with foreign enemies (Tatars, Hungarians) and together with them took part in wars against the Tsar's troops which weakened the Tsar's rule and contributed to the dissolution of the State.

Bogomilism and other forms of protest against feudal oppression were widespread among the serfs who were subjected to severe feudal exploitation. The plight of the peasantry, ruined by the feudal lords, worsened by the Tatar raids (1241 - 1300), caused a popular movement headed by the shepherd Ivaylo (1277). The big peasant detachments headed by him started a successful fight against the Tatars and drove them out of the country. Then the insurrectionists defeated the Byzantine troops which had been sent to install the candidate desirable for Byzantium as a Bulgarian king. The people sought not only liberation from external enemies, but also sought to destroy the oppression of the feudal lords. Ivaylo won the struggle against the king, seized the capital (Tarnovo) and took the royal throne through marriage with the widowed queen. Byzantium did not give up its attempts to place its appointee on the Bulgarian throne. Boyars saw in Ivaylo their enemy, but Ivaylo only threatened to deprive the boyars of their privileges without carrying out these threats. The peasantry did not get freedom and began to move away from Ivaylo. He turned to the Tatars for support in his fight against Byzantium. But Ivaylo was killed in the Tatar horde (1280).

From the second quarter of the 14th century, the Turks began attacking Bulgaria It was not able to withstand them because of the feudal fragmentation of the country. The population shied away from the military service. The personal friendship of the Tsar was insignificant. One of the most outstanding Bulgarian rulers of that time Pian Alexander (1331-71) tried to use diplomatic means to regulate his relations with the Turkish sultan.

At the end of the 14th century Balkan was a conglomeration of independent feudal states which were often hostile to each other. The population of Tŭrnovo kingdom heroically resisted the Turkish onslaught. However, after a long siege Tarnovo fell (1393). On the call of the Pope a militia of the Cross was gathered against the Turks headed by the Hungarian King Sigismund. The Crusaders were defeated by the army of Sultan Bayazid at Nicopolis (1390); after that the Turks conquered the kingdom of Bidipa of Ivan Sracimprus who had let the militia through his lands and the possessions of Ivanko in Dobrudja.

=== The Turkish Military-Feudalism of the late 14th-18th centuries ===
The Turkish conquerors divided the territory of B into three sancakas (provinces) - Vidin. Nikopol and Splistri. These sandjaks, as well as Thrace and Macedonia, were under the authority of the Beyler Bey, who had his residence in Sofia. The Turkish seizure of Bulgaria entailed important changes in Bulgaria The Bulgarian boyars, some of whom were exterminated, some of whom lost their privileges (with the exception of those who accepted the islam), were replaced by the Turkish feudal lords. Class oppression over the peasants was joined by national and religious oppression. Turks took the land into their own hands and converted the majority of Christian population into the masses with no rights and inferiority and called it "flock" - paradise. The Sultan was the supreme owner of the land which was given to Turkish feudals (snakhia) as a legal possession and some lands were allocated for mosques and other Muslim religious institutions (pakuf lands). Part of the land was occupied by Turkish settlers, peasants who settled mainly in fertile and strategically important areas. The enslaved Bulgarian peasants, in addition to the numerous state burdens (Harach, the land tax; Prospeich, the recruitment of boys 5 - 7 years old who later joined the Janissary units, etc.). ) The majority of peasants were considered hereditary. Most of the peasants were considered hereditary holders of the Spahiye land. Among the rayis there were groups exempt from some taxes but obliged to perform special functions such as serving in the army, military-polyceum service in the mountain passages, etc.

The establishment of the military-feudal system of the Ottoman Empire led to the economic decline of Borisov and the extreme worsening of the situation of its population. The expulsion of Bulgarians from some cities contributed to the decline of the city life. During the first centuries of the Turkish rule the craft and commerce were under the control of other nationalities, mainly Greeks. The foreigners (Venetians, Genoese, Dubrovcians) were in charge of the foreign trade. The national and religious oppression of the Turks, expressed in various legal and domestic restrictions on Christians, was extremely severe.

The Bulgarian national church was destroyed and Bulgaria was subordinated to the Constantinople Patriarchate, which ensured Greek domination in the church and opened the way for the elimination of Bulgarians. However many Bulgarian monasteries continued to be the keepers of national culture; in their activity they relied on the connections and material support of the Russian church. For the Bulgarian people Russia, the great Slavic power, was a natural protector, and all hopes for liberation from the Turkish yoke were connected with expectation of help from the Russian state. But at that time Rus' was not yet in a position to provide such assistance. At the very beginning of the 15th century the surviving representatives of the former Bulgarian Tsarist clans had risen in the area bordering the Serbian lands (1403- 05), but this attempt to throw off the Turkish dominion was a failure. Ten years later there was a second attempt to revolt against the Turks, also unsuccessful.

The decline of the Ottoman Empire began at the end of the 16th century. The population's struggles, arbitrariness of the spahns, officials' abuses and forcible Turkization of the population intensified in the decaying Empire. The people's indignation and desire to repudiate the oppressors was growing. The attempts to create alliances of European powers against Turkey and its failure in wars promoted the connection of Bulgarians with the neighboring countries. The economic relationship with Dubrovnik which was a trade mediator between Bulgaria and other countries increased the importance of the Dubrovnik merchants. The merchant George was one of the leaders of the revolt in Bulgaria In 1597 the Bulgarians secured the promise of help from the Austrian Emperor. The uprising that started in 1598 covered the area of Tirpovo. Badly organized and poorly armed insurgents hoped for foreign help. But the Austrian help did not come and the uprising was crushed. Some leaders and participants of the rebellion fled to the Russian state. As the European coalition with the participation of Russia and Austro-Turkish war was created in Tarnovo in 1686 a new rebellion started which was headed by Rostislav Sratzmirovna who was pretending to be a descendant of the old dynasty of Indian kings and had contacts with Russian patriarch Joachim.

The revolt failed. Almost all the Bulgarians who had fortified themselves in Tarnovo were slaughtered. Only with great difficulty did Rostislav and his associates manage to make their way to Russia. The movement of this small detachment caused an uproar in Sredne, but the city's residents, surrounded by Turks, were also defeated. After that, in 1688, a rebellion broke out in Chin-Rovets, the center of mining, but it was also suppressed. Since that time separate rebellions and partisan actions in different regions of Bulgaria have not stopped.

The rise of Kaisaisalism in Bulgaria. The formation of Bulgarian National Revolution. The struggle of the Bulgarian people against the Turkish yoke was successful. From the second half of the 18th century in the Ottoman Empire began the dissolution of the feudal and the development of capitalist relations. Natural rent began to turn into monetary rent. The exploitation of peasants intensified. The process of differentiation of the peasantry, which was accompanied by the emergence of land owners from the Bulgarians. This process intensified in the 19th century, when the peasantry received the official right to own land.

The urban population changed due to the influx there of the impoverished part of the Bulgarian population (especially in the first quarter of the 19th century), the crafts and trade developed. The shop organizations were becoming Bulgarian. The rank-and-file artisans, with the development of capitalist relations, became increasingly dependent on the masters. A great role in the economic development of Bulgaria was played by the Kuchuk

Kainarji Peace Treaty of 1774 which opened the straits and gave Russian merchants the freedom of trade in the Turkish possessions. Domestic trade increased which was reflected in the growth of local fairs.

In the process of the development of capitalism the Bulgarian nation was being formed. The social composition of the population was changing. Some of the Bulgarian traders and moneylenders became the de facto owners of the large land holdings. From this environment came cattle traders and tax payers who enjoyed special privileges. This group (the so-called Chor-Bajis) was in close connection with the Turkish administration and was opposed to the liberation struggle because of their economic interests. The other part of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie, mixed economically, aspiring to the development of industry, was gravitating to the military-feudal Turkish oppression. Political disenfranchisement and a desire for domination motivated the young Bulgarian bourgeoisie to strive to fight the Turkish yoke.

The awakening of national consciousness in the 18th century was reflected in the "History of Slav-Bulgarian" by Paisius of Hilsandar (1762). The work opposed the Hellenistic efforts of the Greek clergy and merchants to Hellenize the Bulgarians and called for the preservation of the Bulgarian language and national development. Gradually the Bulgarian monastic and Greek secular schools have been replaced by the national secular school.

External events further strengthened this process. The French bourgeois revolution at the end of the 18th century had its repercussions in Bulgaria. The Serbian and Greek national-liberation rebellions at the beginning of the 19th century in which the Bulgarians took part had a great influence on the course of the liberation struggle in Bulgaria. The Russian-Turkish wars which took place on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina between the 18th and 19th Centuries had the Bulgarian people's hope for the speedy liberation. When the Russian army carried out military actions on the territory of Borisov the Bulgarians would form detachments which would fight together with the Russian troops. So, during the Russian-Turkish war in 1828-29 the Bulgarian officer Georgi Mamarchev created a volunteer Bulgarian detachment which operated jointly with the Russian troops. During the Crimean War 1853 - 56 Nikolai Filipovsky craftsman was preparing a revolt in Tarnovo, and Bulgarian revolutionary G. Vakovsky with his collected detachment was preparing to join the Russian army. The Bulgarian revolutionary G. Vakovsky prepared to join the Russian army. After the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the Bulgarian lands, many Bulgarians moved to Russia as intermediaries between their new homeland and their brothers who had remained in their homeland. Bulgarian merchants have long settled in Odessa and Moscow. During the Crimean War in Odessa "Bulgarian Superiority" was established, which assisted the Russian troops in Bulgaria The influence of the Russian culture on Bulgaria was extremely great. Russian books were widely distributed in Bulgaria Many Bulgarians received education in Russia. V. Anilov, a prominent figure in the field of public education, 11. Gorov, a prominent philologist and public figure, M. Drinov, the founder of the Bulgarian historical science, N. Bonchev, a literary critic, L. Karavelov, a bourgeois democrat, H. Botev, an outstanding poet and revolutionary and hundreds of other makers of the national liberation period in Bulgaria have studied in Russia. Russian revolutionary and democratic thought had an enormous influence on the formation of the outlook of Botev and others.

The Paris Peace Treaty of 1850, which ended the Crimean War, opened a free access of European goods to Turkey and caused a crisis of local crafts and trade, the mass ruin of traders. Representatives of the big bourgeoisie, who appropriated a part of foreign trade in Turkey, were inclined to support the existence of the Ottoman Empire. Part of the bourgeoisie, the victims of the crisis and bankrupt artisans were in a difficult situation, out of which could only give the destruction of the Turkish domination and the dissolution of the feudal system. The sharp aggravation of social and national conflicts made the Sultan in 1858 to issue a second land law (in 1834 it was declared the destruction of the Timariot system), which established the destruction of Snahiye land tenure and providing peasants with land for a high ransom. This law, as well as the formal recognition of the equality of religions and nationalities of the empire, had no practical significance. However, albeit slowly, the development of capitalism also captured the village. Attempts to replace in-kind taxes with money and the redemption of land put the peasants in the hands of moneylenders. The peasantry was going bankrupt.

=== Liberation of Bulgaria from the Byzantine yoke ===
The development of capitalist relations in Bulgaria strengthened the growth of the national liberation struggle. The leadership at this stage belonged to the bourgeoisie. Since the end of the 30s of the 19th century, the struggle for the national church began, especially after the Crimean War. In 1860 Bulgaria broke with the Patriarchate of Constantinople which did not want to recognize the independence of the Bulgarians. In 1870 the Sultan issued a law on the Bulgarian Exarchate, which established an independent Bulgarian Church under the administration of the Exarch, elected by the Bulgarian bishops.

The first representative of the democratic circles (peasants and artisans) in the Bulgarian national-liberation movement was the outstanding Bulgarian revolutionary and publicist Vakovsky. He was looking for ways of direct armed fight against the Turkish oppressors, formed a detachment in Serbia and intended to enter Bulgaria and raise a revolt. However, the implementation of the plan was prevented by the military clash between the Serbs and the Turks in Belgrade and the ensuing bombing of Belgrade by the Turks which caused the intervention of European diplomacy (1862). After a few years in Bucharest a "Secret Conspiracy Committee" was formed to prepare the revolt in Bulgaria However, the representatives of the big bourgeoisie in the committee prevailed over the radical elements. They came up with the project of transforming Turkey on the dualistic basis according to the Austro-Hungarian model, with granting Bulgaria autonomy and crowning the Sultan as the King of Bulgaria At the end of the same year (1866) Vakovsky created a secret organization in Bucharest to prepare the revolt in Bulgaria but due to his death (1867) the army did not start to act.

The creator of a major revolutionary-liberation organization was V. Levski. A democrat and republican, an ardent enemy of Chorbajistn, he sought to free Bulgaria poliyically and economically. Levski began extensive activities to create a branched network of revolutionary committees in Bulgaria. The general meeting of the committees adopted the program and the charter (1872). Created Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee (Bucharest Committee) was heterogeneous in composition. The revolutionary-democratic wing led by Levski sought to eliminate the Turkish feudal domination by revolutionary means. The radical-bourgeois wing, led by L. Karavelov, found the kooks and contributed to the softening of some points of the program. Levski developed a wide organizational activity in Bulgaria, and he was arrested and executed (1878).

After the death of Levsky, the organization continued its activities in a significantly narrowed scope. In 1874 a new committee was elected, which included Karavelov and a prominent poet and revolutionary H. Botev. Karavelov, who had studied in Russia, was familiar with the Russian revolutionary and democratic thought, but as a representative of the bourgeois circles, he could not perceive its revolutionary essence. Botev's views were formed under the direct influence of the works of Chernyshevsky, Herzen, Pisarev and other Russian revolutionary democrats; he became the leader of the revolutionary wing of the Committee. Disagreements between representatives of two currents led to concentration of actual leadership of the Committee in the hands of Botev. A general meeting of the organization elected a new committee headed by Botev (1875) and decided to prepare an uprising, the success of which was expected because of the uprising in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A revolutionary situation was developing in Bulgaria. The committee sent the Bulgarian uprising leaders there. However, the uprising was poorly prepared; it began on September 10. 1875 in Stara Eagora but was quickly suppressed.

Failure led to disagreements in the Committee, and Botev resigned from its membership. A group of revolutionaries, disappointed in the actions of the Bucharest Committee, gathered soon in Gurgev and formed a new Central Committee, assigning a new revolt for the spring of 1876. The country was divided into districts to which leaders were sent. The date of the uprising was fixed (May 1), but the rebellion had to be started before the deadline (April 20) because of the Turkish government's denunciation. The districts rose to struggle not at the same time. The strongest rebellion was in Panagyurpsha District where the leader of the rebels was G. Vankovskiy. was the leader of the rebels. A wide range of peasants, artisans, petty bourgeoisie and petty bourgeois intelligentsia took part in the uprising. The uprising plan called for the arrival of several detachments (Chet) from Romania. One of the detachments, which departed by steamer, was commanded by X. Botev. Soon after the landing the detachment met with the Turks. In the battle on May 20, 1876 Botev was killed and the detachment was destroyed by the Turks. Another detachment arriving from Romania was also destroyed. The poorly prepared, poorly armed rebellion was defeated. However, the defeat of the uprising did not break the determination of the Bulgarian patriots to fight for the liberation of the country. Some of them joined the Serbian forces fighting against the Turkish yoke. The brutal suppression of the revolt, accompanied with mass executions caused wide public response abroad. In Russia and in many other countries there were outraged protests against the atrocities of the Turkish government and vigorous demands for the national liberation of the Bulgarians. The English government from the very beginning of the national liberation movement of the Balkan Slavs in 1875-76 recommended to the Turkish government to drown the uprising in blood, and subsequently it protected the Turkish murderers and claimed that the reports of atrocities were exaggerated. This way it wanted to hide its participation in the massacre.

The events of April - May 1876 in Bulgaria became a subject of diplomacy, negotiations between Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany. On April 12 ay. On April 12, 1877 Russia declared a war on Turkey. The Russian troops in Bulgaria caused a strong upsurge of the national liberation struggle of the Bulgarians. To support the Russian troops the Bulgarians created militia detachments which joined the Russian troops and took part in fights for the liberation of their country.

The heroic struggle of the Russian troops which was unanimously supported by the majority of the Bulgarian people resulted in the defeat of the Turkish troops in Bulgaria and the return of Bulgaria from the yoke of the Turks. On March 3 1878 the Treaty of Peace was signed in San Stefano which recognized the independence of Bulgaria. Turkey also recognized the borders of the new country. However, England, Austria-Hungary and Germany were against the formation of an independent state. At their insistence and in 1878 Verlennes convened a Congress to revise the Treaty of Stéphane. Although Russia was the victor in the war that had just ended, other powers that had not taken part in the war took the lead at the Congress. This resulted in the suppression of the legitimate interests of the Bulgarian people. The territory of Bulgaria, established by the Sai-Stefai Treaty, was divided into three parts. From North Bulgaria the vassal, in relation to the Turks, Bulgarian princedom was created. An autonomous province - Voet - was created from the Southern Balkans as a part of the Turkish Empire. Rumelin, headed by the Christian Governor General appointed by the Turkish Government, Macedonia and Thrace were left under the Turkish authority. The splitting up of Bulgaria was caused by the fears of the Western European powers that the creation of a large and strong Slavic state in Bulgaria would be a barrier to their expansionist aspirations and strengthen Russia's influence on Bulgaria. Russia could not oppose the three major powers of the time.

=== Bulgaria as a Bourgeois State. Bulgaria 1878 - 1900 ===
Russia provided great assistance to the newly created Bulgarian state. Under the guidance of Russian representatives in the Bulgarian principality a number of measures for its civil and military organization were taken. The army which would be able to defend the country's integrity and independence was founded in V. Russia provided the new Bulgarian army with arms and ammunition, gave Bulgaria the Danube fleet which it had stolen from the Turks during the war and handed over 20 000 horses, helped in the selection and training of officers and non-commissioned officers.

On 10 Feb. On 10 February 1879 the Constituent Assembly was convened in Tarnovo. The Constituent Assembly adopted the constitution, which was later called the Tarnovo

Tarnovo. The Tarnovo Constitution stipulated universal suffrage, a unicameral system, limited the prince's authority and established the responsibility of ministers before the National Assembly. The Constituent Assembly, in which the Liberals were represented, accepted the relatively progressive bourgeois Tyrnova Constitution because of the changes in the balance of class forces in the country. As a result of the Russian-Turkish war together with the Turkish troops the Turkish landlords fled from Bulgaria, which facilitated the destruction of the Turkish feudal regime and V. The Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 had played a great progressive role in the historical development of Benin as it resulted in the liberation from the national enslavement and oppression of feudalism. The liberation of V. created conditions for faster capitalistic development. The land which was formerly owned by the Turkish feudal lords was handed over to the Bulgarian peasants. The development of tovar-monetary relations, debts to the Rostov kings, heavy taxes led to the mass ruin of the peasant households. A small group of kulaks, moneylenders and traders concentrated considerable funds in their hands. The stratification of the peasantry was growing. Capitalism was strengthening in V. At the same time V. became more and more an arena of competition between Western European countries that tried to turn V. into their agrarian and raw materials appendage.

The first Prince of the newly created Bulgarian principality from 1879 was the German Prince Alexander Batenberg. Being an extreme reactionary Prince Alexander Battenberg started a struggle with liberals and in May 1881 he abolished the Constitution establishing a regime of "extraordinary powers". Alexander Vittenberg acted mainly in the interests of Germany and Austria-Hungary, turning V. In the Balkans he turned it into a bastion of Austro-German influence. The anti-russian orientation of the Prince, supported by England, was reflected in the choice of the direction of the railway construction in Bulgaria It was decided to build the Tzarnbrod-Sofia-Vakarel railroad which would connect W. with Germany via Budapest-Becu on one side and Constantinople on the other, instead of the railroad which was to be used for the connection with Russia. Seeking support against the Russian influence, the Prince even made a temporary agreement with the liberals and in 1883 revolted the Constitution.

Since September 1885 as a result of the uprising Vojt. Rumelnia (South Bulgaria) was joined to the Principality of Bulgaria. Serbia, which was under the influence of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, declared war on V. The war ended with a quick victory of the inspired Bulgarian army which secured the borders of the reunified Bulgarian principality according to the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1886. During the same period Balkan Albania had to cede two small districts (Tamrush and Kardzhali) on its southern border to Turkey which in return Turkey recognised the unification of Eastern Bulgaria with Balkan.

In August 1886 a palace coup took place in Bulgaria Alexander Battenberg was deposed. However, the Board of Regents, instigated by the Western European capitalist circles, pursued a hostile policy against Russia, which led to a rupture in diplomatic relations between Russia and V. (November 8, 1886). After long negotiations, thanks to the machinations of Austro-German diplomacy the German prince was put on the Bulgarian throne.

German Prince Ferdinand Koburgsky, an Austrian army officer (July 7, 1887), was placed on the Bulgarian throne. Russia did not recognize the new prince. At that time the de facto ruler in the country was Istanbul (first the regent, and since 1887 the head of government), who represented the circles of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie oriented towards Austria-Hungary and cruelly persecuted the Russian supporters. The country was established a political dictatorship and the foreign (mainly Austrian) capital was widely accessible which caused discontent of Bulgarian craftsmen and the nascent industrial bourgeoisie.

In 1898 the Tarnovo constitution was amended in the direction of expanding the power of the Prince. Using the dissatisfaction in the country with the policy of Istanbul, Ferdinand gave him his resignation in 1894. Having strengthened its position in the country, Ferdinand decided to defuse tense relations with Russia. In order to gain the sympathy of the Russian court, Ferdinand, himself a Catholic, converted his son Boris to Orthodoxy by inviting him to become godfather of Tsar Nicholas II. The active policy in the Far East and the aggravation of relations with Britain prompted the tsar's government to temporarily soften relations with Austria-Hungary and Germany. In 1895 diplomacy, relations between Bulgaria and Russia were restored.

From the end of the 19th century, capitalist production rapidly developed in Bulgaria In 1887 there were only 35 large industrial enterprises, but in 1901 there were about 200 of them. The policy of the governing authorities was determined by the interests of the big bourgeoisie. From 1894, a number of laws on the protection of industrial shares, either by financing it or by changing customs tariffs, were passed. Foreign monopolists and bourgeoisie, who were managing the country, placed the sheaves of capital in the light industry, from which they quickly derived profits because of the relatively faster circuit of capital and this industry, and the development of capitalism was accompanied by the ruin of small producers, the growth of the proletariat. In 1893 the number of independent owners decreased by 21.4% as compared with 1888, while the number of servants increased by 33.5%. In 1898 in Bulgaria there were already about 300 thousand workers and commercial and industrial employees.

=== Start of the Imperialist Period ===
In 1900-14, the period of imperialism was marked for Bulgaria, as well as for all capitalist countries, by the aggravation of the contradictions inherent in capitalism. (The growth of the working class and its class consciousness in the country increased the class struggle.

In 1891, two currents, the Marxist party led by Blagoev and the opportunist one (so called "soshnsti"), were created in the party. Later, under the influence of the works of Lenin and Lenin's "Iskra", a revolutionary wing strengthened in the ranks of this party. In 1903, as a result of a long and persistent struggle, the party split into "tesins" or "close" Socialists and "broad" Socialists. The "broad" Socialists stood for wide access to the Party, which inevitably led to organizational dissoluteness and the contamination of the Party by petty-bourgeois elements. The "Teshchyaks" were for the close, united ranks of the workers' party as the vanguard of the Bulgarian proletariat fighting against capitalist oppression and for socialism.

In 1899 a peasant organization, the People's Farmers' Union, was established in Bulgaria

The revolution of 1905-07 in Russia was very well responded to by Bulgaria. A wave of strikes spread all over the country, one of the results of which was the growth of trade unions (about one thousand workers were organized into trade unions in Minsk, in 1911 over 30 thousand). In October 1908 the Rebellion renounced vassal dependence to Turkey and declared the country fully independent. Ferdinand took the title of King. The Balkan Union was established in 1912, which included Turkey, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro. The goal of the Alliance was to fight against the mutual enemy Turkey which had many Bulgarians, Serbs, Macedonians and Greeks under its rule. In October 1912 the countries of the Balkan Union started the war against Turkey. At that time Bulgaria was the strongest country in the Balkans. It had an army of over 400,000 men. Turkey was quickly defeated during the floods and had to ask for peace. On 30 May 1913 a peace treaty was signed in London. By the Treaty Turkey was deprived of its possessions in the Balkans. However, after the successful end of the First Balkan War, which was objectively of a liberating nature, the war between the recent allies over the division of the liberated territory soon broke out. The Austro-German diplomacy, interested in the discord between the Balkan allies, played a big role in unleashing the war. By order of Ferdinand, encouraged by Austria-Hungary and Germany and supported by the Bulgarian bourgeoisie, on June 29 1913 the Bulgarian army attacked Serbia and Greece. Soon Romania and Turkey opposed Bulgaria and the Bulgarian army was defeated. Bulgaria was forced to give South Dobrogea to Romania, and Macedonia, which Bulgaria was claiming, was divided between Serbia and Greece; only a small piece of Macedonia went to Bulgaria. According to the Treaty of Constantinople signed on September 29. 1913 Bulgaria received a part of Western Thrace which was its exit to the Aegean Sea but had to give it to Turkey the town of Adrianople with the adjoining territory.

During the Second Balkan War (July 1913) came to power a pro-German government of "Liberal Concentration" Raslan, completely focused on Germany and Austria-Hungary. The economic and political influence of the latter on Bulgaria increased. On July 12, 1914 the Bulgarians received a loan from Germany which strengthened the submission of the Bulgarians economy to German imperialism.

=== Bulgaria during the [[First World War]] ===
At the beginning of World War I the government of P. declared its neutrality. A struggle was going on in stormy:, circles over the issue of the foreign policy orientation of the V. The Government conducted secret negotiations with both warring parties. On Sept. On September 15, 1915 secret treaties (alliance treaty and military convention) were signed between Bulgaria and Germany and Austria-Hungary promising Macedonia and part of Seroin. On the same day Turkey signed a treaty with Bulgaria on the transfer of Bulgaria territory along the right and left banks of the Marina River to Dedeagach. Soon after these deals, despite Russia's energetic efforts to prevent Bulgaria from entering into the war, on October 14, 1915 Bulgaria attacked the French army in Turkey. On October 14, 1915 Bulgaria attacked Serbia and entered the war on the side of the Austro-German bloc. By the end of 1915, Bulgarian troops occupied Macedonia.

By the end of 1915 Bulgarian troops occupied Macedonia and part of Serbia. In August 1916, together with Germany and Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria attacked Romania and occupied the southern part of Dobrogea. During the protracted war the living standards of the workers were decreasing, the national economy was collapsing. The popularity of the party of "tesniacs", "internationalists in action", was growing. From the very beginning, the "tesniacs" opposed Bulgaria's participation in the imperialist war. Participation in the war led to a sharp deterioration of the economic situation of Bulgaria.

The Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia had a tremendous impact on Bulgaria. The activity of the "tesnyakovs" intensified, calling on the Bulgarian workers to follow the example of the Russian proletariat, unrest began in the rear and ferment among the soldiers at the front. In the meantime the front on the Balkans still held, however, the Bulgarian army was no longer capable of serious combat operations. Domestic and foreign political difficulties were steadily increasing. The peace treaty with Romania which was signed in May 1918 did not help to alleviate them. According to the treaty South Dobrogea was returned to Bulgaria

On 15 September 1918 French, British, Serbian and Greek armies launched an offensive against the Bulgarian army in Macedonia. The front line was broken in the area of Dobropolo. The retreating Bulgarians rebelled, defeated the headquarters in Kustendil; on September 27 they occupied Radomir and proclaimed the Republic. On 29 September soldiers captured the village of Vladaia (near Sofia) and moved on Sofia. The Bulgarian government, with the help of U.S. diplomats, hastened to conclude an armistice on 29 September. 1918 in Thessaloniki. The Soldier's Revolt (so-called Vladaiskos) was suppressed with the help of German troops. However, Ferdinand was forced to abdicate the throne (October 3, 1918), giving it to his son Boris, and fled.

After the armistice the Anglo-French troops occupied Bulgaria and assisted the Bulgarian bourgeoisie in its struggle against the revolutionary movement. Bondage peace was imposed on Bulgaria Under the Treaty of Neuilly of 1919 Bulgaria was cut off from the Aegean Sea. South Dobrogea was again given to Romania and several smaller regions of Balkan were ceded to Yugoslavia which was created after the war. Bulgaria was only allowed to maintain an army of 20,000 men and was forbidden to have an air fleet. Moreover, it was obliged to pay reparations of 2,250 million gold francs. The whole economic and financial life of Bulgaria was placed under the control of the imperialist International Reparation Commission. The consequence of the war was an extreme worsening of the situation of the working masses.

The Party of Tsenyak, which was one of the founders of the Communist International, transformed into the Communist Party B in May 1919. The Party, however, did not immediately free itself from the mistakes peculiar to the Tsenyaks, in particular - from underestimation of the revolutionary possibilities of the peasantry. In the summer and autumn of 1919 the Bulgarian proletariat, under the leadership of the Communist Party, rose in a strike struggle, unprecedented in its magnitude in the history of Bulgaria The culmination of this struggle was a strike of railway workers and civil servants in December 1919, suppressed in February 1920 by the coalition government of [[Stamboliysky]].

On March 28, 1920 elections to the National Assembly were held. The Agrarian Union received 38% of the votes.

On March 28, 1920, elections to the People's Assembly were held, the Agrarian Union received 38% of the votes and formed a one-party cabinet headed by the Union leader, Stamboliiski. Under pressure from the peasantry, the Stamboliiski Government passed laws on the implementation of many reforms which were essentially half-hearted: the Act on Agrarian Reform under which surplus land over 30 ha was alienated to the State Land Fund to be given to landless and small peasants (by early 1923 the number of landless and midget farms was approx. At the beginning of 1923 the number of landless and dwarf peasants constituted approx. 27-28% and the number of peasant farms cultivating up to 5 ha was not less than 60%), the law on progressive income tax etc. These measures were taken by the Stamboliiski government without necessary resolution and consistency, but partially affected the interests of the Bulgarian big bourgeoisie and foreign capital. The working class and the Communist Party demanded decisive measures. The Stamboliiski Government, fearing the increasing influence of the Communists, persecuted the Communist Party, which received 20.2% of the vote in the elections of 1920, and pursued a policy of opposing the peasantry to the proletariat. Frightened by the growth of democratic forces and the strengthening of the autonomy of the Communist Party, the Bulgarian bourgeoisie, with the support of foreign capital that ruled in Bulgaria, began creating secret fascist organizations ("People's conspiracy" and others).

On June 9, 1923, a fascist coup was carried out. Stamboliysky's government was overthrown and Stamboliysky himself was killed. A fascist clique headed by Dankov, encouraged by international reaction, seized power. The Communist Party adopted an erroneous position of neutrality toward the coup. In September 1923 the monarcho-fascist government of Dankov launched an open attack on the working class and the Communist Party. An anti-fascist uprising began in the country. The revolt covered almost the whole country. In some areas the rebels seized power (Bratz District, Razlog, etc.). A military revolutionary committee headed by G. M. Dimitrov and V. P. Kolaroviš was established to lead the uprising by the Communist Party of Bulgaria P. Kolaroviš. However, the Government, with the support of international reaction, managed to defeat the rebel forces. The workers and peasants were brutally massacred by fascist gangs. The Communist Party and all progressive democratic organizations were banned. Despite the unsuccessful outcome the September Uprising played a major role in the growth of class consciousness of the proletariat and peasantry and the strengthening of the Communist Party, accelerating the process of its Bolshevization.

=== Bulgaria in 1924-39 ===
Dankov's government in 1924 outlawed the Communist Party. After the explosion in the Cathedral of St. Sophia (1925) Dankov's fascist clique increased unprecedented persecution of communists and workers in an attempt to physically destroy all the progressive forces of the Bulgarian people.

In January 1926 the Dankov government that was finally compromised by the brutal repressions gave way to the Lapchev government which, continuing its former fascist policy, was obliged to give the appearance of weakening the dictatorship. The working class in Bulgaria took advantage of some legal possibilities: the trade unions were revived, in 1927 the workers' party was established under the leadership of the illegal Communist Party and the union of the working youth. In 1929 the world economic crisis began and one of the consequences was worsening of the imperialist countries' fight for strengthening and expanding their positions in Bulgaria Along with this, a sharp worsening of the working class position followed as a result of the economic crisis. The strike movement became widespread (especially in 1931).

In June 1931, elections were held in Bulgaria As a result, the Liacev government was replaced by the government of the so-called People's Bloc, which included representatives of the bourgeois opposition (including the Agricultural Union. The government of the People's Bloc, which included representatives of the bourgeois opposition (including the Farmers' Union). This government, under the guise of leftist phrases, continued its terror against the Communists and all the democratic elements. At the same time, discord within the ruling circles of Bulgaria increased, reflecting the tension of the domestic situation and the fragility of the existing regime. In this environment, a coup d'état took place on 19 May.

The new Kimon Georgiev's government imposed a military regime and suppressed all political parties.

Taking into consideration the increasing international prestige of the USSR, the traditional sympathy of the Bulgarian people to Russia and the danger of German aggression which increased with the installation of the Hitler dictatorship in Germany in 1933 the government of K. Georgiev established diplomatic relations with the USSR on 23 July 1934. 15

1935 Tsar Boris, relying on the revanchist pro-German elements, removed the government of Georgiev from power. Subsequent governments have pursued a policy of increased fascization of the country, focusing entirely on Hitler's Germany. This policy was strongly opposed by the popular masses led by the Communists. In 1938 the Bulgarian Communist Party and the Labor Party merged into the Labor Party, which was called the Bulgarian Labor Party, and after September 9, 1944 - the BPP. 1944 - BRP (Communists).

On the eve of the Second World War the influence of Germany on Bulgaria became much stronger. In 1939 Germany had a 2/3 share of German foreign-trade turnover. A significant part of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie was completely dependent on the German capital. Hitler's diplomacy played on the chauvinistic mood of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie (now the slogan of revision of borders of Bulgaria) and stopped the monarch-fascist clique of Bulgaria as a tool of German imperialist policy.

=== Bulgaria during the Second World War ===
At the beginning of the Second World War the Bulgarian government declared its neutrality, but this statement, as well as the signing in January 1940 of the Treaty of Trade and Navigation with the USSR, were only a cover for cooperation with Nazi Germany. In September 1940 a treaty was made between Bulgaria and Rumania by which Bulgaria received southern Cobrudmenea. On 1 March 1941 the Prime Minister Filov in Vienna signed the Memorandum of Accession of Bulgaria to the Berlin Pact and gave his consent to the invasion of German fascist troops in Bulgaria The invaders used the territory of Bulgaria to attack Greece and Yugoslavia on March 2, 1941 and the ruling circles of which opened the door to Hitler. Thus, the ruling monarch-fascist clique of Bulgaria headed by Tsar Boris, expressing the interests of the Bulgarian bourgeoisie associated with German capital, dragged Bulgaria into an alliance with the fascist powers. The traditional sympathies and the love of the Bulgarian people for the brotherly Russian people did not allow this clique to openly declare war on the USSR. Nevertheless Bulgaria was turned into a bridgehead.

Nevertheless Bulgaria was turned into a bridgehead to fight against the Soviet Union and in fact helped Germany which attacked the USSR on June 22, 1941. By replacing the German occupation units in Macedonia, the Serbian Pomerania and West Thrace the Bulgarian army liberated them to fight on other fronts, and in particular against the Soviet Union. The Bulgarian ports (Varna, Burgas, Ruso) were turned into bases of Hitler's naval forces on the Black Sea and all air and railroads of Bulgaria were in Hitler's hands. On November 25, 1941 the monarcho-fascist rulers of Bulgaria joined the "Leninist-Internationalist Pact".

The Bulgarian people have never put up with the criminal anti-people policy of the fascist rulers. The anti-fascist struggle became particularly widespread after the beginning of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union. Under the leadership of the Communist Party, the struggle took armed forms, and guerrilla groups led by the Communists were created. Hitlerites with the help of their Bulgarian accomplices robbed the country clean. (The dissatisfaction of the Bulgarian people with the treacherous policy of the government grew day by day. The monarcho-fascist government tried to suppress the anti-fascist patriotic movement in the country by means of brutal repressions. During the war the fascist military field courts issued 1,590 death sentences. About 40,000 people were thrown into prisons and concentration camps. About 40,000 people were thrown into prisons and concentration camps.

On the initiative of [[Georgi Dimitrov|G. M. Dimitrov]] under the guidance of the Communist Party in 1942 the Fatherland Front (PF) was formed, uniting the anti-fascist forces. On July 17, 1942 the illegal radio station "Hristo Potev" publicized the program of the Fatherland Front drawn up by G. M. Dimitrov, which had the following goals: to break the alliance with Hitler's Iermais and other powers of the Ottoman Empire, to cleanse the Bulgarian land from German fascist troops and Gestapo bandits and ensure cooperation between Bulgaria and the Soviet Union. The home front demanded immediate withdrawal of the Bulgarian troops from the regions they occupied and a friendly agreement with the neighboring nations. The immediate goal of the anti-fascist movement was the overthrow of the fascist regime in the country and the establishment of a people's democratic government. Taking into account the mood of the masses, part of the Land Union, part of the Social Democrats, the Union "Zveno" (representing the anti-German officers and part of the anti-German bourgeoisie), individual representatives of the anti-fascist bourgeois intellectuals who did not belong to political parties agreed with this program and joined the Fatherland Front headed by the Communist Party. The establishment of the Fatherland Front and wide popularization of its program expanded the anti-fascist struggle of the masses. Anti-Hitlerite sabotage intensified, sabotage of factories and railroads became more frequent. Peasants began to refuse to give grain and other products, they beat and expelled from the villages commissions and agents for grain collection. The activity of the Communist-led Home Front and the growth of its influence on the masses contributed greatly to the fact that the Bulgarian government did not dare to send the Bulgarian troops against the Soviet Army.

After the defeat of the Nazi forces at Stalingrad, Tsar Boris, trying to find a way out of the impasse, began to seek contact with the Anglo-American circles. This aroused the suspicions of Hitler and his hordes. Boris was summoned to Hitler's headquarters for explanations. On his way to Sofia he died suddenly on August 28, 1943. Because of the infancy of Boris's heir, the last Bulgarian Tsar Simeon II (1943-40), a regency council was created consisting of Prince Kirill, Bogdan Filov and General Llichov, who continued the same anti-national, treasonous policies as Tsar Boris.

From the beginning of 1943, the Communist-led partisan movement covered the whole country. In the summer of 1944 the partisan detachments already numbered more than 40 thousand fighters and were widely supported by the country's population. Some partisan brigades numbered as many as 1000 or more men; they fought openly with gendarmerie and regular troops. To make the management of guerrilla warfare easier, the U.S. was divided into 12 military-operational zones, where military-operational headquarters with their subordinated units and brigades were formed. All partisan detachments of Bulgaria were part of a single national liberation rebel army headed by the supreme headquarters. Apart from partisan detachments auxiliary combat groups operated almost in all settlements of the country. According to the Red Army command, during the first ten months of 1943 there were 1015 acts of sabotage and diversions in Bulgaria, and only in July 1944 697 acts.

In the course of the people's liberation struggle the unity of the masses was created and strengthened and the foundation of the future people's democratic government was laid. Power. The working class, peasants and the working intelligentsia began to collaborate militarily, and the influence of the working class as a consistent fighter for the interests of the working people increased. Thus, the national liberation struggle was essentially a class revolutionary struggle of the working people, led by the working class and led by its vanguard, the Communist Party, against the bourgeoisie, the reactionary officialdom and monarchy, and the officers who collaborated with the occupants.

When in the summer of 1944 the Soviet troops defeated the German hordes on the territory of Romania and came to the borders of Bulgaria, the Bulgarian government Bagrimov August 26. 1944 issued a statement of its "complete neutrality". It was a ploy to deceive the Bulgarian people and the world public opinion with its false declarations of neutrality and to keep the retreating German troops in the territory of Bulgaria from imminent defeat and to give them an opportunity to create a new bridgehead for resistance. 5 Sept. 1944 Minister of Foreign Affairs of BSSR BulgariaM. Molotov handed to the Bulgarian envoy in Moscow a note which said: if during the last three years Soviet government assumed that the small country was not able to resist the powerful German forces then under changed conditions it was possible to expect Bulgaria to refuse its pro-German policy and to break with Germany. Despite this the Bulgarian right refuses to break with Germany, in fact it is helping Germany against the Soviet Union. And by virtue of this, the Soviet Government...", the note continued, "declares that not only is Bulgaria at war with the USSR, as in fact it has been at war with the

(Pravda, 1944, BulgariaS., No. 214, p. 1).

Declaration of war by Soviet Union against monarch-fascist Bulgaria and entry of Soviet troops on the territory of Bulgaria was invaluable assistance of USSR to the Bulgarian people in their struggle against the clique of criminal rulers, foreign invaders and exploiting classes which supported them. At the same time by this act the Soviet government thwarted the machinations of the Anglo-American imperialists who sought to use the formal "neutrality" of Bulgaria in the war against the USSR to sign a separate armistice with Bulgaria, occupy it and the countries of Southeast Europe, maintain imperialist slavery in them and turn them into an anti-Soviet bridgehead. Appropriate secret negotiations between the Anglo-American representatives and representatives of the Bulgarian fascist clique took place in Istanbul and Cairo (1943-44). The rapid advance of the Soviet Army disrupted the secret negotiations between the monarcho-fascist clique of Bulgaria and the Anglo-American imperialist bloc and allowed the Uolish people to decide their own fate. On September 8, 1944 the Soviet troops, passing through the retreating German units, entered the territory of Bulgaria and occupied the towns of Ruse, Turtukai, Silistra, Dobrich, Razgrad, Shumen, and the Black Sea ports of Varna and Burgas. The local Bulgarian population enthusiastically met the Soviet soldiers, their liberators from the Nazi yoke. To the aid of the Soviet Army came the forces of the popular resistance movement, the whole working Bulgarian people rose. As early as September 0, 1944 the miners in Perinka began a strike that was the signal for the political strike of the whole country.

=== People's Democracy Bulgaria ===
On the night of September 8-9, 1944 partisan units and patriotic military units, including the only tank brigade in Bulgaria occupied state institutions and important strategic objects in Sofia. On September 9 sept. 1944 as a result of the popular uprising the fascist government was overthrown and the first Bulgarian government of the Home Front was established. Following the overthrow of the Fascist regime and the formation of the Home Front Government the Soviet government declared the cessation of hostilities with Bulgaria from 10 o'clock in the evening of the 9th sept. 1944. "...Speaking of the victory of the nationwide" uprising on September 9," pointed out G. M. We should emphasize once again that the greatest merit in the victory of the September 9th revolt and in the liberation of our fatherland from the Nazi yoke belongs to the heroic brotherly Soviet Army and its genial leader, Generalissimo Stalin, for which the Party, the working class and all our working people will always be grateful to them" ( "Pravda, 1948, December 21, No. 350, p. 3). The events of the 9th sept. 1944 in 15. was a revolutionary upheaval that dealt a decisive blow to capitalism and marked the entrance of Bulgaria to a new stage of historical development. In P. the state power passed into the hands of the fighting alliance of workers, peasants, artisans and progressive intellectuals, with the leading role of the early class and its vanguard, the Communist Party. Г! Bulgaria The old state apparatus of suppression and exploitation of the working masses was broken and the new state power was built as an instrument of suppression of the exploiters and liberation of the workers from all exploitation.

The Home Front government immediately after September 9, 1944 undertook important measures to implement the Home Front program and strengthen the people's democracy regime. 1944 carried out important measures to implement the program of the Fatherland Front and strengthen the people's democracy regime. The new government declared war on Hitler's Germany and set a firm course for unbreakable friendship with the Soviet Union, strengthening friendly relations with all democratic nations. The Government of the Fatherland Front launched a struggle for the elimination of the remnants of the fascist regime in the country. War criminals, including former regents and some ministers, were brought to trial and severely punished. A people's militia was created, which played a major role in strengthening the people's democracy regime. All fascist organizations were disbanded and their property was confiscated. The fascist press was shut down and the printing presses were handed over to the press organs of the Fatherland Front. All Fascist - racial and other anti-people laws were abolished. On the initiative of the Communist Party in the Army the Institute of deputy commanders for political affairs was established which played an important role in its democratization. Much work was done to organize and unite the working class. Fascist "trade unions" were dissolved. In a short time, 30 industry trade unions, united in the General Workers' Trade Union were established.

The government of the Fatherland Front took urgent measures to combat economic ruin and improve the situation of the working masses. Wages of workers and employees were raised, the peasants were assisted in carrying out the sowing campaign; the fight against speculation was initiated. However, during the first period of its activity the government of the home front had to pay attention to struggle against Hitler's Germany, which had not been beaten at that time, and to conquest of a just and lasting peace. On October 28, 1944 an armistice agreement was signed in Moscow with B, the Soviet Union, England and the United States. Despite the attempts of the British and German imperialists to hinder Bulgaria's march against Fascist Germany the Bulgarian army took an active part in the last phase of the war, fighting in the 3rd Ukrainian front of the Soviet Army in Yugoslavia, Hungary and Austria. Thus the Bulgarian people, along with the partisan struggle in 1941 - 44 made a new contribution to the defeat of fascism.

The important milestone in the democratic development of Bulgaria was the first free democratic elections. The elections to the new People's Parliament were appointed on August 26. 1945. However, due to the sabotage and provocations of the inner reaction, based on the subversive activities of the Anglo-American imperialists and the open interference of England and the USA the elections were postponed until 18 November 1945. The People's Assembly was elected by a huge majority of the people. The Fatherland Front, led by the Communists, received an overwhelming majority of votes (88.18%) in these elections. In 1946 the National Assembly had passed several important laws, including the one on the landed property (the agrarian reform, which had given the land surplus of big landowners to landless and small peasants), on confiscation of wealth acquired by speculation and other illegal means, on the progressive income tax and others.

The most important question that faced the Bulgarian people was the question of the legalization and consolidation of the revolutionary victories of September 9. 1944. Despite the machinations of the reaction the Bulgarian people by means of the national referendum held on September 8, 1946 voted for the recognition of the revolutionary victories. 92.76% of the voters supported the National Republic and only 4.24% supported the Monarchy (3% abstained). Bulgaria was proclaimed a republic on 15 September. On October 27, 1946 the elections of the Great National People's Republic of Bashkortostan to the Grand National Assembly of the USSR were held. 1946 elections to the Great People's Assembly, which was called to adopt a new constitution, resulted in a victory for the forces of democracy, led by the Communist Party. The Fatherland Front won 366 seats, or 78.3 percent of the Grand National Assembly, including 276 mandates, or almost 60 percent of the Grand National Assembly. The Bulgarian people gave their full confidence in the Communist Party by popular secret ballot. In accordance with parliamentary tradition, the Communists received the right to form a new government. G. M. Dimitrov was elected prime minister of the first republican government of V. The government of G.M. Dimitrov made a number of crown social and economic changes: the Great National Assembly passed the laws on the two-year state plan (April 1947), on the nationalization of industry and banks (December 1947) and other important laws.

Socio-economic transformations in Bulgaria took place in a fierce class struggle with counter-revolutionary groups that were direct agents of Anglo-American imperialism. In 1946-47 the military-fascist organizations ("Tsar Broom", "neutral officer" and others) and the counterrevolutionary group N. Petkov were liquidated. Petkov, who were preparing a military-fascist coup to overthrow the Fatherland Front and restore the reactionary regime.

On February 10, 1947 during the Paris Peace Conference the parties signed a peace treaty. While preparing the terms of the treaty the Soviet Union representatives restored the diplomatic relations with Bulgaria as early as 14 Aug. During the preparation of the treaty the representatives of the Soviet Union that had restored the diplomatic relations with Bulgaria as early as August 14, 1945, consistently and steadfastly defended the interests of the Bulgarian people from the attacks of the British-American imperialist block and its agents - the Greek monarch-fascists and the Yugoslavian spy group Tito that tried to unseat some Bulgarian territory. The Bulgarian people, despite the machinations of the traitors and the Anglo-American imperialists, preserved the territorial integrity of the country and national independence thanks to the support of the USSR. Recognizing Bulgaria's responsibility for its participation in the criminal alliance with Nazi Germany, the treaty took into account Bulgaria's contribution to the victory over Nazi Germany by taking part in the armed struggle against it. The treaty stipulated for Bulgaria the borders that existed on January 1, 1941. Bulgaria was to pay $70 million in reparations over eight years. The signing of the peace treaty improved the international standing of Bosnia, opened up new prospects for peaceful co-operation and the successful development of the country along the lines of the people's democracy, on the road to socialism. BULGARIA established normal diplomatic relations with the majority of European and many non-European countries and took a firm place among the countries of the anti-imperialist and democratic camp led by the Soviet Union.

In fulfillment of the people's will, the Great People's Assembly on December 4, 1947 unanimously adopted the basic law of the country - the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. The Constitution legally consolidated the results of the long struggle of the Bulgarian people for their freedom and independence and the profound democratic changes that took place in the country, provided real democratic rights for the working people and created a new type of State. It was a National Republic where the power belonged to the working class and where the large industry, transport and banks belonged to the State whose leading force was the working class alliance headed by the working class and the Ogre. In Bulgaria the people's democracy regime that was established immediately after the anti-fascist uprising of 9 September 1944 was consolidated. 1944. The concentration of political power and economic supremacy in the hands of the working class enabled the people's democracy regime to fully perform the functions of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Bulgaria's greatest foreign policy success was the conclusion of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union. This treaty was signed on March 18, 1948 in Moscow and it was the most important guarantee for the freedom and independence of the Bulgarian people. Bulgaria also signed treaties of friendship, cooperation and mutual aid with the countries of people's democracy (with Albania - on December 16. Bulgaria also signed treaties of friendship and cooperation and mutual aid with the countries of people's democracy (Albania on December 16, 1947, with Romania on 16 Jan. 1948, with Czechoslovakia - 23rd ay. 1948, with Poland - 29 May 1948, with Hungary - 16 July 1948). In January 1949 Bulgaria, together with some other people's democratic countries, became a member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance created with the participation of the USSR.

At the end of December 1948 the V Congress of the BRP was held after the merger of the BRP with the Bulgarian Labor Social Democratic Party on the basis of the Marxist-Leninist program. The congress proclaimed the main task of the party and the whole Bulgarian people to establish the foundations of socialist system in the country. The realization of this task was included in the Five-Year National Economic Plan (1949-53), which was adopted at the congress and then legally approved on December 30. 1948 by the Great People's Assembly. On May 15, 1949 in Bulgaria the elections of deputies to local authorities - and regional people's councils and the election of judges were held. The elections brought a brilliant new victory to the Communist-led Fatherland Front - its candidates were voted for by 92.01%.

On July 2, 1949, Bulgaria suffered a grave loss: G. M. Dimitrov, a prominent figure of the international labor movement, the leader and teacher of the Bulgarian people, died. The Bulgarian government was headed by Vasil Kolarov, a staunch associate of G. M. Dimitrov.

The exposure of Tito's fascist clique in Yugoslavia strengthened vigilance within the Bulgarian Communist Party and led to the exposure and elimination of the conspiratorial counterrevolutionary group Tr. Koston, a gang of spies and provocateurs recruited by the British and American imperialists who had infiltrated the Bulgarian Communist Party. This gang led by the spy Postov was preparing, on the instructions of the Anglo-American imperialists and the Tito clique, to carry out a counterrevolutionary coup by means of armed action, to tear Bulgaria away from the USSR and the countries of national democracy and to turn it into a colony and a military base of the American-English imperialism. In particular, they wanted to tear off the so-called Pirnpsky region (Blagoevgrad district) from Bulgaria and give it to Yugoslavia. The attempts to carry out this plan, dating back to 1945, failed completely thanks to the opposition of the Communist Party, the people's power and personally G. M. Dimitrov. The agents of imperialist intelligence deployed sabotage and sabotage activities, continuing to assemble forces to carry out their designs for the restoration of the capitalist system in Bulgaria and cut Bulgaria off from the USSR and murder of G. M. Dimitrov and other leaders of the Bulgarian people. The defeat of this group in 1949 delivered a devastating blow to the Anglo-American imperialists and their Titoite agents.

In spite of all the vile machinations, the Anglo-American and Titoite mercenaries were not able to reverse the development of Bulgaria and prevent the strengthening of the People's Democratic Bulgaria The Bulgarian people, under the leadership of the Communist Party, Bulgaria, guided by the Marxist-Leninist learning and experience of socialist construction in the USSR, has made great success in the development of the country on the road to socialism. The country unfolded the process of industrialization and the creation of peasant production co-operatives, with the help of the People's Democratic State. In the atmosphere of exceptional solidarity of the Bulgarian people around the Communist Party on December 18, 1949 elections to the National Assembly and the county councils were held. By voting unanimously for the Fatherland Front candidates (the Fatherland Front candidates received 97.06% of the vote) the Bulgarian people voted for unbreakable friendship with the USSR, for peace, democracy and socialism. On February 1, after the death of Bulgaria Kolarov, Chairman of the Council of Ministers, which followed on January 23, 1950, the government of Bulgaria was headed by Vilko Chervenkov, Secretary of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party.

A number of trials against spy and traitor gangs (in 1947 the trial of II. Lotkov, in 1948 - K. Lulchev, in 1949 - Tr. Koston, in 1950 - groups of American and South Slavic spies), the Anglo-American imperialists did not stop their fight against the people's democratic Bulgaria On February 20, 1950, in response to the Bulgaria government's demand for the withdrawal of Heath, the American envoy and organizer of subversive and espionage activities, the U. S. government severed diplomatic relations with Bulgaria However, the Bolgarian people resolutely rejected the blackmail, threats and pressure of the imperialists.

=== End of People's Democracy ===
After the overthrow of the [[people's democracy]] in the early 1990's, poverty rates in Bulgaria increased by 750%.<ref>{{Citation|author=Branko Milanovic|year=1998|title=Income, Inequality and Poverty during the Transition from Planned to Market Economy|pdf=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321231809/https://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/CUNY-Graduate-Center/PDF/Centers/LIS/Milanovic/papers/Income_ineq_poverty_book.pdf|city=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> 20% of the population left the country and birth rates dropped to their lowest point since 1945. Almost half of Bulgarians were at risk of poverty or social exclusion in 2011. Since capitalism was restored in 1990, 57% of Bulgarians say the economy has become worse<ref>{{News citation|journalist=Richard Wike, et al.|date=2019-10-14|title=Political and economic changes since the fall of communism|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/14/political-and-economic-changes-since-the-fall-of-communism/|newspaper=Pew Research Center|retrieved=2022-02-17}}</ref> and less than 12% say ordinary people are better off.<ref name=":0">{{News citation|author=F.S.|newspaper=Political Affairs|title=An experiment in living socialism: Bulgaria then and now|date=2013-10-02|url=http://politicalaffairs.net/an-experiment-in-living-socialism-bulgaria-then-and-now/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618093545/http://politicalaffairs.net/an-experiment-in-living-socialism-bulgaria-then-and-now/|archive-date=2022-06-18|retrieved=2022-06-27}}</ref>

== References ==
[[Category:Countries]]

Joseph Stalin

2022-11-09T23:43:43Z

GheorgheCraciun:

{{Infobox revolutionary
| name = Josef Stalin
| native_name = Иосиф Сталин იოსებ სტალინი
| image = File:Joseph-Stalin-1950.jpg
| image_size = 225px
| caption = Portrait of comrade Stalin
| nationality = Georgian
| birth_name = Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1878|12|21}}
| birth_place = Gori, Tiflis Governorate, Russian Empire (present-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]])
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1953|3|5|1878|12|18}}
| death_place = Moscow, [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]]
| death_cause = Cerebral hemorrhage
| political_line = [[Marxism-Leninism]]
}}
'''Iósif Vissariónovich Dzhugashvili''' {{Datebio|birthmonth=December|birthday=21st|birthyear=1878|deathmonth=March|deathday=5th|deathyear=1953}}, better known as '''Joseph Stalin''' was a Georgian revolutionary, an outstanding theorist of Marxism-Leninism, as well as the democratically elected<ref>{{Citation|author=Glover Furr|year=2019|title=Stalin and the Struggle for Democratic Reform|title-url=http://marxism.halkcephesi.net/Grover%20Furr/stalin_1.htm|quote=This article outlines Joseph Stalin's attempts, from the 1930s until his death, to democratize the government of the Soviet Union.|pdf=https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/clogic/article/download/191861/188830/218717|trans-lang=English}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|author=Pat Sloan|year=1937|title=Soviet Democracy|title-url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Soviet_Democracy.html?id=UeGRyAEACAAJ&source=kp_book_description|section=Democracy and Dictatorship|page=9|pdf=https://mltheory.files.wordpress.com/2017/06/pat-sloan-soviet-democracy-victor-gollancz-1937.pdf|isbn=9781092297394|trans-lang=English}}</ref> leader of the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]], being the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary of Central Committee of Communist Party of Soviet Union]] from 3 April 1922 to 16 October 1952. Although he is often portrayed as a dictator in the West, even the [[reactionary]] [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] admitted that there was collective leadership during his time in office.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=Central Intelligence Agency|title=Comments on the Change in Soviet Leadership|date=2008-02-26|url=https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP80-00810A006000360009-0.pdf}}</ref>

== Pre-revolution ==

=== Early life ===

Iósif Vissariónovich Dzhugashvili was born on 21 December, 1878<ref group="lower-alpha">Although some historians claim he was born in 18th December, his birthday was officially celebrated on 21st December.</ref> in Gori<ref group="lower-alpha">The city of Gori was part of the Tiflis Governorate, which was one of the administrative divisions of the [[Russian Empire]].</ref> a city of the [[Russian Empire (1721–1917)|Russian Empire]], in the family of a craftsman, later a worker of a shoe factory. Like his parents, Stalin was an ethnic [[Georgia|Georgian]], and he grew up speaking the Georgian language. Both his father and his mother came from a family of serfs.<ref>{{Citation|author=Ian Grey|year=1979|title=Stalin, man of history|chapter=|section=|page=9|quote=Vissarion, his father, came from the village of Didi-Lilo, near Tiflis, where his parents, like their forebears, had been peasant serfs. For Vissarion emancipation meant that he was free to follow his trade as a cobbler. Around 1870 he moved to Gori, where in 1874 he married Ekaterina Georgievna Geladze, daughter of a serf family from a nearby village. She was about eighteen years of age, some five years younger than her husband. They were humble working people, poor and illiterate.|pdf=|city=|publisher=|isbn=|doi=|lg=http://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=A341F7377CB157DD7730A9A416CDC302|mia=|title-url=|chapter-url=|trans-title=|trans-lang=}}</ref>

Stalin's revolutionary activities can be traced to his time as a student after 1894, when he joined the Orthodox Theological Seminary in Tiflis.<ref>{{Citation|author=Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute|year=1949|title=Joseph Stalin: a political biography|page=5|quote=In the autumn of 1888 Stalin entered the church school in Gori, from which, in 1894, he passed to the Orthodox Theological Seminary in Tiflis.

This was a period when, with the development of industrial capitalism and the attendant growth of the working-class movement, Marxism had begun to spread widely throughout Russia. The St. Petersburg League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class, founded and led by Lenin, had given a powerful stimulus to the Social-Democratic movement all over the country.|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=26C959185500A43A5CFF3947ECEF2FCB}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|year=1931|title=[[Library:Stalin interview with Emil Ludwig|Stalin interview with Emil Ludwig]]|quote=I joined the revolutionary movement at the age of fifteen, when I became connected with certain illegal groups of Russian Marxists in Transcaucasia. These groups exerted a great influence on me and instilled in me a taste for illegal Marxian literature.}}</ref> In 1896 and 1897, Stalin was a part of Marxist study groups in the seminary, and in August 1898, he formally joined the Tiflis branch of the [[Russian Social Democratic Labor Party]] (RSDLP) and began to conduct [[propaganda]] work among the workers in the Tiflis railway workshops. An avid reader, he read ''[[Capital, vol. I|Capital]]'' and the ''[[Manifesto of the communist party]]'', written by [[Marx|Karl Marx]], subsequently taking a profound interest in [[Marxism]]. At that time, he became acquainted with some of [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]]'s articles criticizing the [[Narodniks]] and the "Legal Marxists".<ref>{{Citation|author=Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute|year=1945|title=Joseph Stalin: a short biography|page=5|quote=Jn 1896 and 1897, Stalin conduoled Marxist study circles in the seminary, and in August 1898 he formally enrolled as a member of the Tiflis Branch of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. [...]

Stalin worked hard to broaden his knowledge. He studied Capital, the Communist Manifesto and other works of Marx and Engels. He acquainted himself with Lenin's polemical writings against Narodism, "Legal Marxism" and "Economism." His theoretical interests were extremely broad. He studied philosophy, political economy, history and natural science. He read widely in the classics. He thus trained himself to he an educated Marxist. Even at this early date Lenin's writings made a deep impression on him. "I must meet him al all costs," one of Stalin's friends. reports him to have said. after reading an article by Tulin (Lenin).|lg=https://libgen.rs/book/index.php?md5=034C4C1A4DBC437BC939DCF13A1D9EBD}}</ref> In 1899 I. V. Stalin was expelled from the seminary for the propaganda of Marxism, he went to an illegal position and became a professional revolutionary.

=== Revolutionary activities ===
While organizing in the [[Caucasus]], Stalin exposed the [[Mensheviks]] as [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[Reformism|reformists]]. He met Lenin in person for the first time at a [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Bolshevik]] conference in Tampere, [[Grand Duchy of Finland (1809–1917)|Finland]] in 1905.<ref>{{Citation|author=Joseph Stalin|year=1939|title=History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)|chapter=The Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks in the Period of the Russo-Japanese War and the First Russian Revolution|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch03.htm|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch03.htm}}</ref> In 1912, the party elected Stalin to the Central Committee even though he was in exile at the time.<ref>{{Citation|author=Joseph Stalin|year=1939|title=History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)|chapter=The Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks in the Period of the Stolypin Reaction. The Bolsheviks Constitute Themselves an Independent Marxist Party|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch03.htm|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch04.htm}}</ref> In 1912, Stalin helped found the newspaper ''Pravda''.<ref>{{Citation|author=Joseph Stalin|year=1939|title=History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)|chapter=The Bolshevik Party during the New Rise of the Working Class Movement before the First Imperialist War|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch03.htm|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch05.htm}}</ref>

After the [[February Revolution]], Stalin returned from exile in [[Siberia]]. He called for an overthrow of the [[Russian Republic (1917–1918)|provisional government]] and opposed the [[Imperialism|imperialist]] [[First World War]]. At a party conference in April 1917, he argued with [[Nikolai Bukharin|Bukharin]] and [[Georgy Pyatakov|Pyatakov]], who did not support the right of [[Nation|nations]] to [[self-determination]]. In September, Stalin opposed participating in the [[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] [[Provisional Council of the Russian Republic|Provisional Council]] and called for a revolution instead.

On 29 October 1917, the Central Committee elected Stalin as head of the Party Center to direct the [[Russian revolution of 1917|October Revolution]].<ref>{{Citation|author=Joseph Stalin|year=1939|title=History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)|chapter=The Bolshevik Party in the Period of Preparation and Realization of the October Socialist Revolution|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch03.htm|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch07.htm}}</ref>

== Post-revolution ==

=== Civil War ===
In summer 1919, the Central Committee sent Stalin, [[Kliment Voroshilov|Voroshilov]], [[Sergo Orjonikidze|Orjonikidze]], and [[Semyon Budyonny|Budyonny]] to the southern front, where he organized an attack against [[Anton Denikin]] from the [[Donbass]]. The [[Workers' and Peasants' Red Army|Red Army]] defeated Denikin in October 1919 and liberated all of [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991)|Ukraine]] by early 1920.<ref>{{Citation|author=Joseph Stalin|year=1939|title=History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)|chapter=The Bolshevik Party in the Period of Foreign Military Intervention and Civil War|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch03.htm|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch08.htm}}</ref>

=== Creation of the U.S.S.R. ===
After the defeat of the interventionists and the [[civil war]], when in connection with the transition to a peaceful economic construction of the anti-party groups launched a struggle against the party line developed by Lenin, Stalin defended the [[Leninist]] line and fought against anti-party groups and factions ([[Trotskyists]], "workers' opposition"). At the X Congress of the Party (1921) Stalin presented "The Report on the next tasks of the Party in the [[national question]]". After the 11th Party Congress (1922) the Plenum of the Party Central Committee elected Joseph Stalin as the Secretary General of the Central Committee.

Under the leadership of V. I. Lenin, the Party during this period carried out extensive work on the creation of the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]. Lenin believed that the USSR should be a voluntary union of equal and sovereign [[Soviet republic|union republics]]. On this question, Stalin at first took the wrong stand, putting forward the project of so-called "autonomization", i.e., the entry into the RSFSR of other Soviet republics on the rights of autonomous units. V. I. Lenin strongly opposed this proposal, criticized Stalin's mistakes in conducting the national policy, his partiality to the manifestations of great-power [[chauvinism]]. The Leninist principles were accepted by the Central Committee and formed the basis of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. The report on the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922) was made at the 1st Congress of Soviets of the USSR by the order of the Central Committee of the RCP(b) by I.V. Stalin in view of Lenin's illness.

After Lenin's death, the Communist Party, under the leadership of the Central Committee, firmly and confidently led the Soviet people along the path of implementation of Lenin's precepts, on the path of building socialism. At this time, Stalin made a number of works that were of great importance in the protection and propaganda of Leninism and in the ideological defeat of the currents hostile to Leninism. In this respect, a great role was played by Stalin's work "On the Foundations of Leninism" (1924), which set forth the basic issues of Leninism and disclosed the new things that Lenin contributed to Marxism. The defense by I. V. Stalin, together with other leaders of the Party, of the Leninist theory of the possibility of the victory of socialism initially [[Socialism in one country|in one, separate country]], and of the possibility of the victory of socialism in the USSR in the capitalist encirclement, was of particular importance in the struggle against the Trotskyists.

=== 14th Party Congress ===
Based on the instructions of V. Lenin, who developed a scientifically sound [[program]] for building socialism in the USSR, the party set a course for the [[socialist industrialization]] of the country. This line was set out in the political report of the Central Committee at the XIV Party Congress (1925), made by Stalin. The report emphasized that the essence of [[industrialization]] was the priority development of [[heavy industry]], and first of all the [[mechanical engineering]], the fundamental difference of socialist industrialization, which was inextricably linked with the improvement of the working people's material condition, from the capitalist one, which was held by means of colonial seizure, robbery and ruthless exploitation of the working people.

In early 1926 he published a book of Stalin "Toward Leninism", which was criticized opportunistic views of [[Zinovievites]], who were descending to the ideological positions of Trotskyism and wanted wanted the Soviet Union to stay mostly [[Agriculture|agricultural]] and import its industry from [[Capitalism|capitalist]] countries.<ref>{{Citation|author=Joseph Stalin|year=1939|title=History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)|chapter=The Bolshevik Party in the Period of Transition to the Peaceful Work of Economic Restoration|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch03.htm|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch09.htm}}</ref> At the 15th Party Conference (November 1926) Stalin made a report "On the Social Democratic bias in our party" and at the VII Extended Plenum of the Executive Committee of the Communist International (December 1926) with the report "About the Social Democratic bias in our party again". Both these reports played an important role in rallying the party ranks under the banner of Leninist ideas and in exposing the Trotskyites, their capitulation to capitalism and their disorganizing activities.

=== Collectivization ===
Based on the successes of socialist industrialization and guided by Lenin's [[cooperative plan]], the 15th Congress of the CPSU (b) (1927) put forward [[collectivization]] of the [[agriculture]] as the most important task of the Party and Soviet people. These questions were covered in the political report of the Central Committee of the Party, made at the Congress by I. V. Stalin. During this period, an anti-party group of [[Opportunism|right-wing opportunists]] - [[Bukharin]], [[Rykov]], [[Tomsky]] and others - openly opposed the general line of the Party. In the reports of Stalin "On the industrialization of the country and the right deviation in the CPSU (b)" (1928), "On the right - the deviation in the CPSU (b)" (1929), etc. exposed the line of the right opportunists, which expressed the ideology of the kulak, [[rich peasant]] class.

In 1930, Stalin released the ''Pravda'' article "Dizzy with Success," criticizing people who were overenthusiastic about [[collectivization]] and forced [[Peasantry|peasants]] onto collective farms. This issue was most severe in [[Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Transcaucasia]] and Central Asia, where collectivization was not scheduled to finish until 1933.<ref>{{Citation|author=Joseph Stalin|year=1939|title=History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)|chapter=The Bolshevik Party in the Struggle for the Collectivization of Agriculture|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch03.htm|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch11.htm}}</ref>

At the XVI Congress of the CPSU(b) (1930) and XVII Congress of the CPSU(b) (1934) Stalin made reports on the work of the Central Committee of the Party. During this period, the Communist Party and the Soviet state carried out an all-out offensive of socialism against the [[Capitalism|capitalist]] elements. Under the conditions of a tense international situation, the country overcame enormous difficulties in order to put an end to the technical and economic backwardness within the shortest historical period. In pursuing a course of priority and predominant development of heavy industry, the Party made decisive progress in the socialist industrialization of the country and the collectivization of agriculture.

=== 1936 Constitution and Onwards ===
Stalin helped draft the [[1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union]], which the Eighth Congress of Soviets approved in November 1936.<ref>{{Citation|author=Joseph Stalin|year=1939|title=History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)|chapter=The Bolshevik Party in the Struggle to Complete the Building of the Socialist Society. Introduction of the New Constitution|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch03.htm|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch12.htm}}</ref> This constitution remained in effect until 1977.

In 1938 Stalin wrote his work "On dialectical and historical materialism", which gives a brief coverage of the foundations of Marxist-Leninist philosophy and shows its importance for the practical work of the Party.

In March 1939 the 18th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks was held. In the report of the Central Committee at the Congress Stalin outlined the program developed by the Central Committee of the struggle of the party and the Soviet people for the completion of building a socialist society in the gradual transition from socialism to communism.

=== Second World War ===
Joseph Stalin became [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars]] in 1941, a position he would hold until his death.<ref>{{Citation|author=Samuel Totten, Paul Bartrop|year=2008|title=Dictionary of Genocide: A–L|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313346422}}</ref> At the beginning of the [[Second World War|Great Patriotic War]] of the Soviet Union Joseph Stalin was appointed Chairman of the State Defense Committee, People's Commissar of Defense, and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the USSR, and remained in these positions until the victorious end of the war. The great victory over the [[Adolf Hitler|Hitlerite]] coalition was won by the Soviet people under the leadership of the Communist Party and its Central Committee, headed by Stalin.

However, on the eve of the Great Patriotic War he misjudged the international situation. Overestimating the value of the Soviet-German non-aggression treaty Stalin did not believe the information about direct preparation of German troops to invade the USSR. He rejected all the suggestions about the necessity to put the Soviet frontier districts on alert. It was one of the reasons why for the Soviet troops in the western regions the attack of Hitlerite armies was sudden. Soviet troops, covering the state border, made heroic resistance to the invaders, but being insufficiently prepared to repulse the attack and forced to fight in a very unfavorable situation, they suffered heavy losses in men and equipment, which led to a sharp change in the balance of forces in favor of the enemy.

During the war the Party and the government organized military production on a large scale in the eastern regions of the country. Thanks to the great advantages of the socialist system, the presence of highly developed industry, and the dedication of the people of the Soviet Union in the short term managed to create an advantage over the enemy in the quantity and quality of weapons; to disrupt the Nazi plans for "lightning war", to ensure a turning point in the war and to prepare the conditions for the defeat of Hitler's invaders. The Communist Party and its Central Committee were the organizing and guiding force of the heroic nationwide struggle against the Nazi invaders. The Communist Party united and directed the activity of all party, Soviet, economic, social organizations and military bodies. The members of the Central Committee of the Party, prominent Soviet military leaders, local party and Soviet organizations unfolded a huge organizational, political, economic and military work. Thanks to the resilience and heroism of the Soviet soldiers, the activities of the outstanding commanders of the Soviet Army were prepared and successfully conducted unprecedented in their scale, skill and courage of the plan the military operations that led to total victory over the enemy.

During the war Joseph Stalin as a head of the Soviet government took part in the conferences of the leaders of the three powers - the USSR, the USA and Great Britain - in Teheran (1943), in Yalta and Berlin (1945). During these years I.V. Stalin maintained everyday correspondence with the presidents of the USA and the prime-ministers of Great Britain, in which he insistently fought for strengthening of anti-Hitler coalition, consistently defended the national interests of the peoples of the countries which were subject to Hitlerite aggression.

=== Postwar ===
In the postwar period I. V. Stalin published his works "Marxism and questions of linguistics" (1950) and "Economic problems of socialism in the USSR" (1952), which considers important questions of Marxist-Leninist theory. "The Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR" had a great influence on the development of some positions in the political economy of socialism. I.V. Stalin stressed the objective character of economic laws in socialism; based on the classical Marxism-Leninism statements, he formulated the main economic law of socialism, the law of systematic and proportional development of national economy; noted the importance of priority growth of means of production for the expanded socialist reproduction. At the same time, the work contains a number of erroneous and controversial positions (e.g.: assertion that commodity circulation begins to hinder the development of productive forces of the country and the gradual transition to product exchange is necessary; underestimation of the law of value in production, especially with regard to means of production; the statement about inevitability of reduction of the volume of capitalist production after World War II and about inevitability of wars between capitalist countries in the current conditions).

In October 1952 the 19th Congress of the CPSU was held. At the closing session of the Congress Stalin made a speech. The Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee, which took place after the Congress, elected Joseph Stalin a member of the Presidium of the Central Committee and Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

Outstanding work of Stalin was highly appreciated by the Soviet Union. Stalin's outstanding activities were highly appreciated by the Soviet government. He was awarded the ranks of a Hero of Socialist Labor (1939), a Hero of the Soviet Union (1945) and Generalissimo of the Soviet Union (1945). He was awarded with three Orders of Lenin, the Order of Victory, the Order of the Red Banner, Suvorov of the 1st degree and medals.

On March, 5, 1953 after a serious hemorrhagic stroke Stalin died.

== Debunking myths ==

===Antisemitism===

Despite [[Right-wing politics|right-wingers]] and [[Fascism|fascists]] spreading [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] about "Judeo-Bolshevism," some historians have made baseless claims that Stalin was an [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semite]]. The below letter from Stalin refutes this claim.

{{Quote|In answer to your inquiry:

National and racial chauvinism is a vestige of the misanthropic customs characteristic of the period of cannibalism. Anti-semitism, as an extreme form of racial chauvinism, is the most dangerous vestige of cannibalism.

Anti-semitism is of advantage to the exploiters as a lightning conductor that deflects the blows aimed by the working people at [[capitalism]]. Anti-semitism is dangerous for the working people as being a false path that leads them off the right road and lands them in the jungle. Hence Communists, as consistent internationalists, cannot but be irreconcilable, sworn enemies of anti-semitism.

In the U.S.S.R. anti-semitism is punishable with the utmost severity of the law as a phenomenon deeply hostile to the Soviet system. Under U.S.S.R. law active anti-semites are liable to the death penalty.|J. Stalin|Reply to an inquiry of the Jewish News Agency in the United States {{Refn|Stalin: ''Reply to an inquiry of the Jewish News Agency in the United States'' [https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1931/01/12.htm MIA link]}}}}

=== Personality cult ===
Stalin did not want to have a personality cult around himself. In 1938, he requested destroying a book that portrayed him too positively and stated that the theory of "heroes" was an [[Party of Socialist-Revolutionaries|SR]] and not a [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Bolshevik]] theory.<ref>{{Citation|author=Joseph Stalin|year=1938|title=Letter on Publications for Children Directed to the Central Committee of the All Union Communist Youth|title-url=https://mltheory.wordpress.com/2014/06/24/stalin-on-the-cult-of-personality/|city=London|publisher=Red Star Press|mia=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1938/02/16.htm}}</ref>

== Popular support ==
In 2019, 70% of [[Russian Federation|Russians]] said they had a positive view of Stalin's role in history. This was a 12 percentage point increase from 58% in 2015.<ref>{{News citation|newspaper=[[In Defense of Communism]]|title=Anticommunism Fails: 70% of Russians have a positive opinion on Joseph Stalin|date=2019-04-17|url=http://www.idcommunism.com/2019/04/anticommunism-fails-70-of-russians-have-positive-view-on-joseph-stalin.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629093512/https://www.idcommunism.com/2019/04/anticommunism-fails-70-of-russians-have-positive-view-on-joseph-stalin.html|archive-date=2021-06-29}}</ref>

==References==
<references />

=== Notes ===
<references group="lower-alpha" />
[[Category:Joseph Stalin]]
[[Category:Marxist theorists]]
[[Category:Former heads of state]]
[[Category:Targets of bourgeois media]]

Agriculture

2022-11-09T22:46:23Z

GheorgheCraciun:

[[File:Feudal Farming.jpg|thumb|Agriculture contributed to the formation of class-based society.]]{{Message box/Stub}}
'''Agriculture''', or as it is often called, '''Farming''', is one of the main spheres of material production, the purpose of which is to obtain plant products and livestock products by growing and using agricultural plants and animals. The agricultural sector provides food, raw materials for industry, reproduces live traction force (horse breeding, reindeer breeding, etc.) and has a significant share in the national economy. Around half of the world's population is engaged in agriculture. The area used in agriculture is more than 37% of the globe's land surface. The initial usage of agriculture was one of the major factors that led to the [[History of humanity|formation of civilization]], as well as the creation of class-based society.

== Scope ==
The agricultural sector is divided into two major branches: crop and livestock farming. Often forestry is included as a special branch, as well as primary processing of agricultural products (oil production, wool washing, cotton cleaning, primary processing of flax, etc.), if it has not been separated into independent industries. The complex of many production branches which are the part of agriculture determines the variety of agricultural production processes: for land reclamation and soil treatment, sowing, breeding and improvement of sowing material and cultivation of new plant varieties; crop care and harvesting; animal care, their economic use and breeding new breeds; primary processing and storage of agricultural products, etc. Such versatility of agricultural production determines the multiplicity of the links between agriculture and various branches of knowledge and sciences (geology, soil science, plant and animal physiology, meteorology, mechanics, etc.) and the emergence of a system of agricultural sciences (agronomy, agronomy and plant and animal physiology, meteorology, mechanics, etc.). The system of agricultural sciences (agronomy, agrobiology, general and particular agriculture, general and particular cattle breeding, agricultural economics, organization of agricultural production, etc.) emerged.

Distinctive features of agricultural production are associated with the conditions of agricultural production and depend on the level of development of productive forces and the mode of production. In agriculture, the difference between the time of production and the working period (i.e. the period in which the living labor force is connected with the means of production) is related to biology, the process of growth and development of the living organism of plants and animals. For example, reproduction of cattle lasts for several years. To a certain extent it is possible to speed up the process of creating a ready product: a more rational feeding to accelerate the animal reaching slaughter weight; special pre-sowing treatment of seeds and care of plants to accelerate the process of their maturation; in appropriate climatic conditions with careful soil treatment and proper plant care two or even three crops from one and the same area can be obtained within a year. All this is achieved in agriculture on the basis of the study of biology, the process of plant and animal organism development and active influence on it to achieve desirable and possible in these or those conditions biology, organism properties

[[Category:Agriculture]]

Adolf Hitler

2022-11-09T22:25:38Z

GheorgheCraciun: Completely revised

{{Infobox politician
|name=Adolf Hitler
|nationality=[[Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1867–1918)|Austro-Hungarian]] (1889–1925) Stateless (1925–1932) [[German Reich (1933–1945)|German]] (1932–1945)
|political_line=[[Fascism]] [[Nazism]] [[Anti-communism]]
|birth_date=1889-04-20
|birth_place=Braunau am Inn, [[Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1867–1918)|Austro-Hungary]]
|death_date=1945-04-30
|death_place=Berlin, [[Greater German Reich]]
|death_cause=Suicide
|image=Hitler_picture.jpg}}
'''Adolf Hitler''' was the president of the [[Nazi Party]], the leader of German [[fascism]], [[Nazi Germany]] Chancellor from 1933 to 1945 and and "Führer", executioner of the German people and peoples of countries temporarily occupied during [[Second World War|World War II]] by German bandit [[imperialism]], chief war criminal and ardent enemy of the Soviet Union. Hitler, demagogue and vain maniac, used the most vile means in the struggle for strata and influence.

== Life ==
He was born in Austria. In 1920 he was one of the organizers of the fascist National Socialist Party, a terrorist party of monopolistic capital, by order and on the money of German [[Reactionary|reactionaries]]. Stalin said "The party of the Hitlerites is a party of imperialists, moreover, the most predatory and plunderous imperialists among all the imperialists of the world". In 1923 the Hitlerites made a failed coup attempt in Munich ("beer hall putsch"). In 1933, in a deep economic and political crisis in Germany, the German imperialists called the Hitlerites to power.

Hitler and his clique, Stalin pointed out in 1942, "are the chain dogs of German bankers, putting the interests of the latter above all other interests".

With the approval of the ruling circles of England, France and the USA and with the assistance of the leaders of the German Social Democracy, Hitler established a terrorist dictatorship in Germany.

International reaction bet on Fascist Germany as the main force in the fight against the USSR and the revolutionary movement in order to strengthen the capitalist system and, on this basis, assisted Hitler. monopolies and using the support of the reactionary governments of England, France and the USA, which pursued a policy of collusion with aggressors, Hitlerites eliminated by a unilateral act the military limitations set by the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 and came to acts of direct aggression. Together with Italian Fascists they carried out an armed intervention against Republican Spain (1936-39), formed a block of aggressive states, invaded Austria (1938) and Czechoslovakia (1938-39), and unleashed the Second World War. After capturing a number of European countries, Hitler's Germany attacked the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. "It is very likely," Stalin pointed out as early as 1942, "that a war to liberate the Soviet land will lead to the expulsion or destruction of the Hitler clique. We would welcome such an outcome. But it would be ridiculous to identify the Hitler clique with the German people, with the German state. The experience of history tells us that Hitlers come and go, but the German people and the German state remain".

The Soviet Union decisively defeated Hitler's Germany in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45, freed the German people from Hitlerism, ensured the preservation of national independence of the German people and opened the way to freedom and democracy.

Out of fear of a fair trial of the nations, Hitler committed suicide, as reported on May 1, 1945 by the German High Command.

[[Category:Former heads of state]]
[[Category:Fascists]]
[[Category:Genocide perpetrators]]

Adam Smith

2022-11-09T22:08:52Z

GheorgheCraciun: Additions where necessary, especially related to Smith's political economy

Adam Smith {{Datebio|birthyear=1723|deathyear=1790|birthmonth=June|deathmonth=July|birthday=~5|deathday=17}} was a Scottish philosopher and economist who is best known as the author of ''[[An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth Of Nations]]'' (1776), one of the most influential books ever written.

== Life ==
Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in Fife, Scotland, in 1723, in the family of a postal worker. Smith's father died two months before he was born.

He graduated from secondary and high school, was one of the most educated people of his time. Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was 14 and studied moral philosophy. In 1740, he was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition. His time at Oxford was not a happy one, according to his letters. Near the end of his time there, he began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown. He left Oxford University in 1746, before his scholarship ended.

Smith began delivering public lectures in 1748 at the University of Edinburgh. In 1750, Smith met the philosopher [[David Hume]], who was his senior by more than a decade. In 1751, Smith earned a professorship at Glasgow University teaching logic courses. When the head of Moral Philosophy in Glasgow died the next year, Smith took over the position.

In 1759 he published his book "The Theory of Moral Sentiments". In 1762, the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.). At the end of 1763, he obtained an offer from Charles Townshend—who had been introduced to Smith by David Hume—to tutor his stepson, Henry Scott, the young Duke of Buccleuch. Smith resigned from his professorship in 1764 to take the tutoring position.

''The Wealth of Nations'' was published in 1776 and was an instant success, selling out its first edition in only six months.

Smith's economics theory reflected historical conditions of English capitalism development in the 18th century. K. Marx characterized Smith as "a generalizing economist of the manufactural period". The influence of the manufactural period was reflected in the fact that Smith attributed the decisive role in the development of productive forces to the manufactural division of labor, considering the manufactory as a typical form of enterprise. Smith acted as an ideologist of the bourgeoisie in the period when it played a progressive role. V. I. Lenin characterized Smith as "a great ideologist of the advanced bourgeoisie". Smith was not a conscious defender of the bourgeoisie, but objectively, regardless of his subjective sympathies, he defended provisions corresponding to the requirements and interests of the development of the productive forces of capitalist society.

The starting point of the economics theory is the position on the "natural order". Under the "natural order" he understood the "normal" social order, corresponding to human nature and subject to objective economic laws, acting independently of the will and desire of people. This doctrine was metaphysical in nature. In fact, Smith identified "the natural order" with capitalism, which he considered as the only "normal" social order corresponding to the nature of the man. Smith did not deny the existence of other economic orders, but he believed that such orders contradicted the requirements of political economy. However, in spite of its metaphysical character, the development of the doctrine of "natural order" played a positive role. It pushed Smith on the way of revealing inner laws of bourgeois society. But Smith did not always manage to hold on to scientific positions. He often passed from scientific analysis to description of phenomena in that perverted and twisted form in which they appear during surface observation. This led to the inevitable combination of scientific and vulgar elements, to numerous contradictions in his teaching.

Smith died in the northern wing of Panmure House in Edinburgh on 17 July 1790 after a painful illness.

== Works ==

* The Theory of Moral Sentiments
* An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the ''Wealth of Nations''

== Views ==

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Economists]]
[[Category:British political economists]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]

Abstract and concrete labor

2022-11-09T21:50:42Z

GheorgheCraciun: Expanded definition

'''Abstract labor''' and '''concrete labor''' are terms used by Karl Marx in his analysis of [[political economy]]. They are not different kinds of labor but different ways of looking at labor.<ref>Simon Mohun, "Abstract labour", in Tom Bottomore, ed. ''A Dictionary of Marxist Thought'' (Blackwell: 1991)
</ref>

Labor, the creation of a commodity, is of a dual nature: as the expenditure of human labor power in a special expedient form - weaver, miner, metal worker, etc., it is concrete labor and creates the intrinsic value of commodity; as the expenditure of human labor power in general, regardless of its coequity form, it is Abstract Labour and creates the value of commodity.

Abstract labor is the labor that creates the value of a commodity, as Marx says, it is "the expenditure of human labor power in general."<ref>''Capital,'' v. 1, ch. 1, section 2.
</ref>,without regard to the specific form of this expenditure.

The dual nature of labor in the conditions of commodity economy based on private ownership of the means of production emerges from the main contradiction of commodity economy - between the private and social labor, which develops on the stage of capitalism into the contradiction between the social character of production and private ownership of the means of production, the private capitalist form of appropriation. In the commodity economy, labor is essentially social, because there is social division of labor between different branches of industry, and different commodity producers work for each other. However, because of private ownership of means of production, the social nature of labor in the process of production is not revealed, remains hidden and directly acts as private labor of individual commodity producers who work each at their own risk and responsibility. Commodity producers, producing certain goods, do not know what society's need for the goods they produce is, how many other producers are engaged in the production of the same goods and in what quantity they are produced, and therefore the social character of the commodity producer's labor is revealed only in the process of exchange.

The condition for exchange is the heterogeneity of use values and, accordingly, the diversity of specific types of labor. By equalizing their products in the process of exchange, people actually equalize their labor costs. When a pair of boots is exchanged for a few meters of cloth, the labour of the shoemaker and the weaver (which cannot be compared in this form of two kinds of labour) is equalized, and the labour costs in general. Lenin wrote: "The thing that is common to all commodities is not the concrete labor of a certain branch of production, not the labor of one kind, but abstract human labor, human labor in general. The entire labor force of a given society, irrespective of the sum of the values of all commodities, is one and the same human labor force: billions of facts of exchange prove this"

Engineering, architecture, and factory work, viewed as concrete labor, are different; but viewed as abstract labor they are the same. Viewed as abstract labor they are just, as Marx puts it, each a productive expenditure of some quantity of human brains, nerves and muscles.<ref>''Capital,'' v. 1, ch. 1, section 2.
</ref>
The term "abstract labor" is roughly equivalent to "usefully expended human energy."

Labor under any social conditions of production is a productive expenditure of human labor power in general. But only under conditions of commodity production Abstract Labor becomes a form of social labor. Under capitalism this finds its vivid expression in the fact that the wage worker is indifferent to those copious forms of labor in which the capitalist exilicates. The constant changes of conjuncture, mass unemployment, instability of the wage worker's summation, characteristic of capitalism, force the worker to change from one type of labor to another. As Marx wrote, "This change in the form of labor is accomplished, to a certain extent, without a certain friction, but it is still accomplished". The material possibility for the transition from one particular form of labor to another is created by the development of machine production, which, while increasing the culture of simple labor, at the same time reduces the bulk of labor to a relatively small amount of unskilled labor. Without any other type of labor, it corresponds to the social form, in which individuals easily pass from one type of labor to another, and in which any particular labor is casual and therefore indifferent to them. Labor here, not only in category, but also in action, has become a means of creating wealth in general and has lost its specific connection with a particular individual. Because of the fact that the commodity economy is an economy of private commodity-producers and that labor in the commodity economy has a latent-social character in the process of production, it cannot be accounted for in working time, it can only be revealed and accounted for in the process of exchange, spontaneously by equating one labor with another.

Lenin says: "The product of an individual producer, which is not intended for the consumption of others, can reach the consumer and give the producer the right to receive another public product only by taking the form of money, i.e. by undergoing prior social accounting in both qualitative and quantitative respects. And this accounting is done behind the back of the producer, by means of market fluctuations."

The place in ''Capital,'' Volume I where Marx discusses abstract and concrete labor most fully is section 2 of chapter 1. The section is entitled "The Two-Fold Character of the Labor Embodied in Commodities."

Marx distinguished between value, as defined above, and ''use-value,'' which is the usefulness of a commodity. He connected concrete labor with the production of use-value and abstract labor with the production of value. The concluding paragraph of section 2 of chapter 1 of ''Capital,'' Vol. I makes that point:{{Quote|On the one hand all labour is, speaking physiologically, an expenditure of human labour-power, and in its character of identical abstract human labour, it creates and forms the value of commodities. On the other hand, all labour is the expenditure of human labour-power in a special form and with a definite aim, and in this, its character of concrete useful labour, it produces use-values.}}
(Note that a brief definition of ''labor-power'' is "the capacity of a human to do work.")

Marx sometimes used the term "useful labor" synonymously with "concrete labor."<ref>''Capital,'' v. 1, ch. 1, section 2.</ref>

==References==
<references />

==Other works==
* John Eaton, 1966. ''Political Economy: A Marxist Textbook'' (International Publishers). See the section, "Abstract and Concrete Labor" in Chapter 2: "Commodity Production." The book is available free online from Marxists.org

[[Category:Marxist economics]] [[Category:Political economy]] [[Category:Labor]]

Republic of Abkhazia

2022-11-09T20:47:26Z

GheorgheCraciun: Geography section added, some history added

{{Template:Stub}}

{{Infobox country|name=Republic of Abkhazia|native_name=Аԥсны Аҳәынҭқарра Республика Абхазия|largest_city=[[Sukhumi]]|capital=[[Sukhumi]]|official_languages=Abkhazian Russian|area_km2=3,900|population_census=244,926|population_census_year=2020|image_flag=Flag of Abkhazia.svg|image_coat=Coat of arms of Abkhazia.svg}}

'''Abkhazia''', officially the '''Republic of Abkhazia''', is a partially recognized state in the [[Caucasus]], in the northwestern part of Georgia on the Black Sea coast. It was an [[autonomous oblast]] in the [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic|Georgian SSR]] until 1990, when it declared independence. The territory is 8,700 km long. Its capital is Sukhumi.

==Geography==
Abkhazia is mostly located on the southern spurs of the Main Caucasus Range and in smaller parts on the low-lying coast of the Black Sea. The lowland coast stretches as a strip of unequal width, bridged by mountain spurs. Farther from the sea lowlands (especially on the east coast) turns into hilly foothills. The east is narrow and reaches a considerable width in the South-Eastern part. The Great Caucasus Range stretches along the northern boundary of the Republic in the form of an inexhaustible curtain wall which reaches 3,300-4,000 m. The Main Caucasian Range reaches 3,300-4,000 m. Its peaks are covered with eternal snows and glaciers.

In Abkhazia we can distinguish areas: a humid subtropical climate in the lowlands and mountain slopes up to 500-600 m altitude (winter in the higher parts is relatively colder), a moderately cold climate - up to a height of 2,000 m, cold climate - at an altitude of 2,000-3,000 m; still higher - a climate of eternal snow.

All Abkhazian rivers belong to the Black Sea basin. They are fast mountain rivers, which flow in narrow gorges, often with steep slopes. The largest of them are Bzyb (100 km) and Kodori. Of the lakes, the most interesting are the mountain lakes, such as Ritsa and Smaller Ritsa. The lake Rina is one of the most beautiful places of the republic and attracts many tourists and excursionists.

Subtropical podzols and their varieties with different degrees of podzolization are widespread in the eastern and piedmont parts. Red soils and yellow soils occupy some small areas of foothills. Above yellow and red soils there is a zone of lightly asolized brown mountain forest soils. A large area in the same zone is occupied by low carbonate-rich soils. At about 700-1,900 m begins a zone of mountain-meadow soils typical for the subalpine zone, to be replaced in places at an altitude of 2,300-2,500 m by mountain-meadow peaty soils of the alpine zone. Swampy soils occur in the southern part of the coastal strip.

The rich flora of A. contains 2,000 plant species, of which 367 are endemic to Western Georgia. In the forests of A. there are: bear, wild cat, lynx, wood marten, roe deer; in the lowlands - jackal. Among reptiles - the red viper, various types of lizards, and among amphibians - frogs (a number of species), the Asia Minor newt.
==History==
The territory of the present day Abkhazia was already inhabited by man in the Paleolithic period. The Paleolithic sites of Abkhazia are recognized as one of the most ancient settlements of the Stone Age in the former Soviet Union. Highly developed forms and techniques of the bronze Koban culture and numerous other archeological finds testify to the development of agriculture and animal husbandry among the local population, as well as to the allocation of metallurgy craft into an independent branch of production.

Political disintegration of Georgia at the turn of the 15-16th centuries. led to the separation of the Abkhazian principality led by the ruling house of Shervashidze. In the feudal struggle against the Dteilian ruling princes of Dadiyash the Abkhazian princes at the beginning had a clear success, moving the borders of their principality from the Kodor River to the Inguri River during the 18th century.

The Turkish rule, which was established in Abkhazia itself in the 17th and 18th centuries. was the darkest period in its history. Turkish dominance was accompanied by a severe economic and cultural decline of Abkhazia, which turned back to primitive times in the field of foreign trade, which took the form of an exclusively natural exchange, and the main subject of export became prisoners. The slave trade, intensively cultivated by the Turks, depleted the country, which was churning out many thousands of men, women and children. The main stronghold of Turkish aggression was the ancient city of Tskhumi (Sukhumi), captured by the Turks.

The Turks forcibly imposed Islam and the Turkish language on the population. The majority of the Abkhaz, however, explicitly or implicitly professed Christianity and were united in a single church organization with the whole of Western Georgia. At this time, the Abkhaz principality was involved in an all-Georgian feudal struggle. The Turkish rule in Abkhazia caused frequent violent uprisings of the Abkhaz people against the invaders. There were rebellions in 1725, 1728, 1733, 1771 and other years. At that time Abkhazians acted together with the brotherly Georgian people. Russian Cossacks helped them in their struggle against the Turkish yoke.

Abkhazia as part of the Russian Empire. The threat of enslavement by the Sultan Turkish encouraged the rulers of Abkhazia to seek help and protection of Russia, following the example of the Georgian tsars. As far back as 1770 the Abkhazian ruler Zurab Shervashidze had been negotiating with the Russian expeditionary force sent to Russia by Catherine II. Levan's successor Kelesh-bey Shernashidze was also a supporter of the Russian orientation. Immediately after the annexation of Mingrelia bordering Russia (1804) he communicated with the Russian command, expressing his desire to become a subject of Russia. In response to this move the Turkish squadron of attacked Sukhumi. However, 25 thousand men were gathered into the militia and seized the Sukhumi fortress and repulsed the attack (1806). Then the sultan's agents organized a conspiracy and in 1808 Kelesh-bey was killed by the conspirators who captured Sukhumi fortress which was given to the Turks. His son Sefer-bey Shervashidze asked for help from the Russian nobility and was recognized by it as the last prince of the Abkhazian possessions under the patronage of Russia (1810). A year later a Russian landing party knocked the Turks out of the Sukhumi fortress and occupied it. Turkey, unwilling to accept the passing of Abkhazia to the Russian protectorate, on several occasions (1813, 1821, 1824) tried to capture Sukhumi but was unsuccessful.

Military assistance from Russia saved Abkhazia from the threat of absorption by the Sultan's Turkey and created the preconditions for the expansion of the economic ties with the neighboring districts of Zanzibar, Georgia and the Black Sea ports of Russia. In 1832, a customs outpost was established in Ukhumi, and a trading port was opened in 1846. At the same time, the drying of swamps in the vicinity of the city began, a botanical garden was arranged, measures were taken to improve local viticulture. Armenia was drawn more and more into market ties. Tsarism, which, relying on the local feudal nobility, consolidated and expanded its exploitative rights. In 1846, the Abkhaz ruler Mikhail, with the approval of the tsarist government, officially announced the established the "nobility's police" to deal with recalcitrant serfs.

While opposing the military-feudal methods of the policy of tsarism and the arbitrariness of the landlords, the Abkhaz people at the same time saw in Russia a powerful ally in the struggle against the Turkish invaders. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, a detachment of the Abkhazian cavalry took part as part of the Georgian militia.
==Foreign relations==

==References==
<references />